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Understanding English Language Learners’ Needs and the Language Acquisition Process: Two Teacher Educators’ Perspectives
Holliway and McCutchen (2004) stressed that the coordination of the author, text, and reader representations “builds on multiple sources of interpersonal, cognitive, and textual competencies” and may well account for most of the difficulties that children experience with revision. In an early study of expert versus novice differences in writers, Sommers (1980) documented that professional writers routinely and spontaneously revise their texts extensively and globally, making deep structural changes. They express concern for the “form or shape of their argument” as well as “a concern for their readership” (p. 384). By contrast, college freshmen made changes primarily in the vocabulary...
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WRITING & READING SKILLS IN ENGLISH - UNIT 4: WRITING
Tellingly, college students benefit by simply providing them with 8 minutes of instruction to revise globally before they are asked to start a second and final draft of a text (Wallace, Hayes, Hatch, Miller, Moser, & Silk, 1996). Although this could be interpreted to mean that the students lack the knowledge that revision entails more than local changes, the results of Myhill and Jones (2007) with 13-14 year olds render such an interpretation unlikely. An alternative interpretation is that, when left to their own devices, college students invest their available working memory resources as best they can, but still fail...
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UP AND AWAY: A resource book for English language support in primary schools
Finally, interventions that prompt the writer to “read-as-the-reader” explicitly focus working memory resources on the reader representation. These are effective in improving the revising activities of 5th and 9th graders (Holliway & McCutchen, 2004) as well as of college students (Traxler & Gernsbacher, 1993). However, it is unclear from these studies what costs are incurred when limited attention and storage capabilities are focused on the reader representation rather than on the author and text representations. In all of these studies, the task involved writing a text that described a geometric figure to the reader and thus possibly limited the...
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Investigating the Role of Metacognitive Knowledge in English Writing
The concept of knowledge-crafting proposed here draws from the work of Walter Ong. About 30 years ago, Ong (1978) argued that a skilled author creates a fictional audience for the text to understand its meaning from the prospective readers’ point of view. In contrast to oral communication, the audience for written communication is not actual, but fictional, a product of the writer’s imagination that can play an active role in composition. As Ong explained, the writer must anticipate all the different senses in which any statement can be interpreted and correspondingly clarify meaning and to cover it suitably.” To...
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Workplace Writing Skills Developing Clarity and Accuracy A Resource to Supplement Existing Published Materials
Writing development, then, is not complete at the end of university or even post- graduate work. An individual who writes on the job as a professional, even if it is but a part of his or her work, is preoccupied with what the text says in relation to what the writer already knows. Scientific writers, for example, must know “what problems the discipline has addressed, what the discipline has learned, where it is going, who the major actors are, and how all these things contribute” to the writer’s own project (Bazerman, 1988). Such domain-specific knowledge may have several beneficial effects...
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COMPASS/ESL ® Sample Test Questions— A Guide for Students and Parents Writing Skills
Academic writing is complex in that it involves more than grammar. It involves familiarity with the writing conventions of university culture and disciplinary subcultures in which the second/foreign language learner participates (Schneider & Fujishima, 1995). Ballard and Clanchy (1984) found that while a student is inducted into a particular discipline through lectures, discussions, and laboratory work, it is through the written assignments that success is most commonly judged. Although foreign language proficiency is at the heart of writing, the real problem for overseas students is not language-related errors, but the fact that students have not met the expectations of the...
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Sách WRITING IN ENGLISH - A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK FOR SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL WRITERS
For some overseas students, essays have to be written in the unfamiliar rhetorical styles of the target culture (Crowe & Peterson, 1995). An added complexity is that different cultural conventions are involved in academic argument. These conventions are important from the point of view of the teacher in that overseas students may have a logical orientation, but it may be perceived to be illogical to a reader anticipating a different culturally-constrained demonstration of logic. Jordan (1997) looked at the writing difficulties of overseas postgraduates attending writing classes at a university in the U.K. The students were asked to comment...
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GUIDELINES FOR WRITING WORK METHOD STATEMENTS IN PLAIN ENGLISH
The results illustrate the mismatch between student and instructor perceptions of the problems associated with students' written work. Whereas students selected vocabulary as offering the greatest challenge (62%), instructors clearly indicated style as being of greatest concern (92%). Students generally underestimated their problems, with large discrepancies for style and grammar when compared with the instructors’ perceptions. Clearly this academic barrier will lead to an escalation of academic culture shock for the overseas students, especially as it was not seen as a barrier by nearly 50% of the students surveyed. Weir (1988) also conducted a wide-ranging survey of instructors ...
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Second Edition FOR ESL LEARNERS Writing Better English
Achieving success in a new culture does not, however, lie solely in learning the grammar and lexicon of the language. Ability to negotiate cultural barriers and develop new ways of learning are also essential. Teachers need to be familiar with the socio-cultural sources of the problems encountered by overseas students writing in a foreign language, including differences in rhetorical styles (Cai, 1993). As most overseas students bring with them linguistic, cultural, attitudinal, and academic experiences (Leki, 1992), and many of them already possess study skills at an advanced level in their own language, what they actually need is help in...
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A Report to Carnegie Corporation of New York WRITINGNEXT EFFECTIVE STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE WRITING OF ADOLESCENTS IN MIDDLE AND HIGH SCHOOLS
Such studies show how writers' cultural backgrounds influence their organisation of writing; what they choose to use as evidence in supporting their main ideas; how they express their main ideas; and how they write in the foreign language (Benda, 1999). They also show how different rhetorical preferences are reflected in textual organisation in different languages (Grabe & Kaplan, 1989). Contrastive rhetoric is also an area of research in second/foreign language learning that identifies problems in composition encountered by second/foreign language writers by referring them to the rhetorical strategies of the first language. It maintains that language and writing are cultural...
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Student Success Guide Writing Skills
Learning to compose in a foreign language is not an isolated classroom activity, but a social and cultural experience. For example, the rules of English composition encapsulate values that are absent in, or sometimes contradictory to, the values of other societies. Likewise, the rules of Chinese writing reflect beliefs and values that may not be found in other societies. Therefore, learning the rules of composition in a foreign language is, to a certain extent, learning the values of the corresponding foreign society (Shen, 1989). The process of learning to write in the target language is a process of creating and...
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RAISING STUDENTS' AWARENESS OF CROSS-CULTURAL CONTRASTIVE RHETORIC IN ENGLISH WRITING VIA AN E- LEARNING COURSE
This study investigated the potential impact of e-learning on raising overseas students' cultural awareness and explored the possibility of creating an interactive learning environment for them to improve their English academic writing. The study was based on a comparison of Chinese and English rhetoric in academic writing, including a comparison of Chinese students' writings in Chinese with native English speakers' writings in English and Chinese students' writings in English with the help of an e-course and Chinese students' writings in English without the help of an e-course. Five features of contrastive rhetoric were used as criteria for the comparison. The...
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WRITING ENGLISH ESSAYS WITHIN DOMINANT DISCOURSES IN MALAYSIAN SCHOOLS*
The aim of this document is to provide guidance for teachers, and learning support assistants where appropriate, on ways to teach writing skills in order to help learners to become more effective writers. This document is designed to raise awareness of the many individual skills that a learner has to grasp (including consideration of the content of their writing, the ideas, arguments or plot) when learning to write. Faced with such multiple challenges it is not surprising that young learners, or those identified by school data as underattaining in literacy, make many errors when they try to do all this at once. This document suggests, therefore, that attention needs to...
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Examples of the Standards for Students’ Writing 2009: English Language Arts Grade 9
It is crucial that the teaching of writing skills is carried out in a consistent way across the whole school. In a primary setting, this means that all teachers should have reached agreement on the messages about required structure and content that they will give to learners (for example about the layout of a particular genre of writing) so that learners are not confused when they move into a class taught by someone new. In a secondary setting, as learners move between different departments as part of their learning, this is particularly important. This means that writing skills need to be taught consistently, not only by designated language teachers...
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Developing Learners’ Academic Writing Skills in Higher Education: A Study for Educational Reform
The Skills framework for 3 to 19-year-olds in Wales (Welsh Assembly Government, 2008) makes it clear that teachers need to respond to learners where they currently are in their learning, not where they think they ought to be according, for example, to their age. Effective assessment procedures (formative, diagnostic and summative) will provide teachers with the necessary evidence for them to tailor the specific teaching of writing skills to meet individual needs within the class. This teaching should take place, however, as a support for the writing of whole texts rather than as discrete lessons out of any context. Learners need to be encouraged to see writing as a process...
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The Handbook of English Linguistics
The activities in this document aim to outline the various stages in the teaching of writing that a teacher needs to consider. No-one would advocate giving a learner an empty sheet of paper and a title and telling them to write a story or a report, except in an examination for which they had been fully prepared. The fear of that empty page is very real to many learners who have no idea how to begin the process and feel they are devoid of ideas and expertise; they can become demoralised, lose confidence and be put off writing for life unless they are explicitly taught strategies to cope....
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Relationships of L1 and L2 Reading and Writing Skills
This document contains 10 units organised as in-service training (INSET) sessions, each of which can be used singly or as part of a continuing programme of work. Although the document is arranged in a logical sequence, it is not necessary to use the units in order. Each is designed to be free-standing and could be used alone to meet a particular need identified by teachers. Units summarise current thinking on the most effective ways to teach and to achieve progression in writing, using available research and resources to provide a comprehensive one-stop shop for teachers in Wales. Clearly, a document of this kind cannot provide much more than the main...
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A HANDBOOK FOR THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH 87: BASIC WRITING SKILLS II
Most units will be appropriate for use with all teachers in primary, special and secondary schools where their subjects will support the application and reinforcement of the skills that are the unit’s focus. The document might well be used, for example, if a school’s self-evaluation process has indicated that the standard of learners’ writing is a problem either in English, Welsh or in subjects across the curriculum. In a Welsh or bilingual school setting, it might be more useful to use the Welsh version of the document for the majority of units, looking at the English units where there are differences between both languages, for example Units 6 and...
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Academic Writing Development of ESL/EFL Graduate Students in NUS
Each unit is structured so that it can be delivered without the need for extensive preparation by the group leader. This might be the English and/or Welsh language coordinator of a primary or special school and/or the appropriate head(s) of department in a secondary school, a member of the school’s senior management team (SMT) or the LA advisory team, or a tutor in initial teacher training. The development of writing skills should be part of a whole-school strategy, led by a senior teacher, that involves every teacher in the school. The document aims to provide material that might form part of whole-school training as well as work in LAs...
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Easy English Writing Style Guide
The skills of reading, writing, speaking, and listening are of vital importance in many areas. Not only are they essential in many careers, they also underpin successful study at all levels, and a proficiency in them can also add immeasurably to an individual’s general quality of life. This specification is designed to aid and assess such development, and to encourage learners to be inspired, moved and changed by following a broad, coherent, satisfying and worthwhile course of study. It will prepare learners to make informed decisions about further learning opportunities and career choices and to use language to...
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MASSACHUSETTS CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS AND LITERACY
The most effective way for students to learn words they need for adult life is through reading a variety of materials. Indeed, it is estimated that “the average child enters school with a reading vocabulary of only a handful of words but learns reading vocabulary at a rate of 3,000 to 4,000 words a year, accumulating a reading vocabulary of something like 25,000 words by the time he or she is in eighth grade and one that may be well over 50,000 words by the end of high school.” 4 A well planned vocabulary program will also contribute to vocabulary...
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Sách 501 GRAMMAR AND WRITING QUESTIONS
One way to motivate interest in vocabulary is to teach students about the origins of the English words we use today in educated speech and writing. Students in successful English language arts classrooms learn about the way the English language has developed across time and place. The English language has the largest vocabulary of all the world’s languages. Furthermore, it is still growing, because that is the nature of a living language. The English language reflects the influence of every language community with which English-speaking people have interacted. On the other hand, the structure of standard English...
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Sách Massachusetts English Language Arts Curriculum Framework
The main source of data for this study was essays written in the DET about two weeks before the semester started (time 1) and in week 11 (time 2). Two levels of analysis were conducted, holistic and analytic. The holistic analysis was mainly based on the bands the participating students obtained at time 1 and time 2. This level of analysis aims mainly to ascertain whether students’ academic writing competence has improved purely in numerical terms. The second level of analysis was a detailed linguistic analysis of students’ scripts, with a special focus on fluency, accuracy, academic vocabulary use, and...
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WJEC GCSE in English Language For Teaching from 2010 For Award from 2012
Following Storch and Tapper (2009), we measured fluency in terms of the total number of words and words per T-unit. To count the total number of words of an essay, the word count tool of the Microsoft Word was used. In counting words, titles were excluded. For the identification of a T-unit, we followed the definition used by the originator of the concept Kellogg Hunt. According to Hunt (1970, p. 4), a T-unit is “a main clause plus all subordinate clauses and nonclausal structures attached or embedded in it.” The identification and counting of the T-units was done manually...
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Functional Skills Qualification in English at Entry Level SAMPLE ASSESSMENT MATERIALS
Use of vocabulary is an important aspect of academic writing. Again, following Storch and Tapper (2009), we examined the occurrences of vocabulary in the Academic Word List (AWL) developed by Coxhead (2000). The AWL consists of 570 word families derived from a corpus of academic texts drawn from our ‘sub- corpora’ from arts, commerce, law, and science (see Coxhead, 2000 for details). These words are academic words that are found across disciplines and comprise 9-10% of an academic text (Storch & Tapper, 2009). Each student script was checked for the presence of words on the AWL and the number of occurrences...
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Guidance on the teaching of writing skills INSET opportunities for teachers of a subjects across the curriculum at Key Stages 2 and 3
Text Structure and Rhetorical Quality In the DET, each student’s writing was given a banded score of 1-5 for content, organization, and language, respectively. Based on the banded scores for these separate areas, each essay was also assigned a weighted band of 1-5, which was calculated by giving one weighting for content and double weightings for both organization and language. For the posttest scripts, a tutor who had the experience of teaching ES5001A and of marking DET was engaged to mark all the essays based on the same set of DET descriptors. The bands obtained by each student at time 1...
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KEY ENGLISH TEST for Schools
The questionnaire consisted of both multiple choice questions and qualitative questions. The quantitative questions focused on two main areas: (a) the usefulness of the course and various course components for the enhancement of the students’ academic writing skills and abilities, and (b) the usefulness of the course in helping them write their other course-work related assignments and research reports. The qualitative questions elicited students’ feedback on the difficulties they still encountered in writing academic assignments, the usefulness of the course in improving their academic writing, and any potential benefits (other than the development of English language skills) that the course...
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A Study of the Noun Phrase in Spoke andWritten English
In this section of the questionnaire, students were asked to indicate the extent or degree of agreement to the 11 course objective statements, based on a five-point Likert scale with one for strongly disagree, three for neutral and five for strongly agree. In general, the majority of students either agreed or strongly agreed that the course had fulfilled its objectives, except probably for the improvement of grammar accuracy (Item No. 9) (see Table 7). Specifically, at least two-thirds of the students either agreed or strongly agreed that the course had helped them understand the general characteristics of academic...
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ENGLISH AS A GLOBAL LANGUAGE SECOND EDITION
In this section of the questionnaire, students were asked to indicate the extent or degree of agreement to whether they felt more confident in writing assignments in their core academic modules and in writing academic research papers, again based on a five-point Likert scale with 1 for strongly disagree, 3 for neutral, and 5 for strongly agree. The majority of students either agreed or strongly agreed that after taking the course, they felt more confident in writing assignments in their core academic modules (78%) as well as in writing academic research papers in their respective disciplines (80%). ...
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INVERSION IN WRITTEN AND SPOKEN CONTEMPORARY ENGLISH
Linguists, it has to be admitted, are strange animals. They get very excited about things that the rest of the species seem almost blind to and fail to see what all the fuss is about. This wouldn’t be so bad if linguists were an isolated group. But they are not, and what’s more they have to teach non-linguists about their subject. One mistake that linguists often make is to assume that to teach linguistics, students should be instilled...
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