Dynamic and Mobile GIS: Investigating Changes in Space and Time - Chapter 13

Chapter 13 Citizens as Mobile Nodes of Environmental Collaborative Monitoring Networks Cristina Gouveia 1, Alexandra Fonseca 1, Beatriz Condessa 2 and António Câmara 3 1 Centre for Exploration and Management of Geographic Information, Portuguese Geographical Institute, Portugal 2 Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Instituto Superior Técnico, Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal 3 Environmental Systems Analysis Group, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, New University of Lisbon, Portugal 13.1 Introduction Monitoring systems have been used widely to increase knowledge of the state of the environment. They are responsible for collecting and registering the baseline data of environmental systems. Monitoring is more than taking measurements; it is about learning the current state of the system, the system dynamics, the impact of management actions and how the information collected can be used to reach management goals. According to Boyle (1998) and Vaughan et al. (2003), monitoring systems have evolved to link monitoring information to the decision-making process. However, according to Vaughan et al. (2003) the major limitation of environmental monitoring is the ability to provide timely identification and warning of emerging problems to the public, stakeholders, research personnel and managers. Additionally, monitoring systems have shown difficulties in providing information to raise awareness, educate and provide the basis for informed decisions. Due to the temporal and spatial characteristics of environmental data, GIS has been used to support environmental monitoring activities (Larsen, 1999; Gao, 2002). Mobile GIS, in particular, has been explored to support fieldwork, facilitating data collection and management (Tsou, 2004; Chapter 12, Tsou and Sun, in this book). In general, mobile computing applications together with mobile communications create new opportunities for environmental monitoring. For example, mobile GIS together with mobile communications can provide location-aware monitoring data and facilitate the collection of real-time data (Tsou, 2004). ____________________________________________________________________________________ Dynamic and Mobile GIS: Investigating Changes in Space and Time. Edited by Jane Drummond, Roland Billen, Elsa João and David Forrest . © 2006 Taylor & Francis © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 238 Dynamic and Mobile GIS: Investigating Changes in Space and Time The exploration of such technological developments may support the creation of non-traditional approaches within environmental monitoring. Community participation within environmental monitoring systems has been one approach followed to increase public awareness and education on environmental problems and to provide timely information to citizens and decision makers (Vaughan et al., 2003; Cuthill, 2000). Moreover, public participation within environmental monitoring may contribute to increasing the knowledge on the state of the environment. Presently, the impact of volunteer monitoring initiatives is limited mainly due to a lack of data credibility and difficult data access and use. A collaborative framework is required to support volunteer tasks and increase the impact of volunteer initiatives (Gouveia et al., 2004). The creation of environmental collaborative monitoring networks (ECMN) is proposed in this chapter as a framework to promote citizen participation within environmental monitoring, while supporting the use of citizen-collected data. In ECMN, citizens are the nodes of a monitoring network that uses collaboration among its partners to facilitate volunteer monitoring activities. ECMN are committed to increase the impact of volunteer monitoring initiatives, namely by supporting the use of citizen-collected data by other stakeholders. Additionally, they intend to contribute to increase the knowledge on the state of the environment and educate the public on environmental issues. Mobile computing and communication, together with the evolution of sensing devices, have created new opportunities to support the creation of ECMN. These technological developments may support collaboration among citizens allowing to link isolated initiatives and promoting volunteer monitoring. It is possible to envision a future where the common citizen equipped with information appliances, ranging from data loggers to smart sensors, contribute with their local data to increase the knowledge on the state of the environment, overcoming spatial and temporal gaps of the traditional monitoring systems. Early warning systems to protect environmental quality may emerge and benefit from these equipped and motivated citizens avoiding larger damages on the environment. The major goal of this chapter is to explore the use of mobile computing and communications together with sensing devices to support citizens within their monitoring activities. It evaluates the possibility of creating a mobile collaborative monitoring network where each node is a citizen with no predefined location and willing to participate within environmental monitoring. The chapter starts by presenting the spatial, temporal and social characteristics of environmental monitoring networks in Section 13.2. It goes on describing environmental collaborative monitoring networks as a way to overcome some drawbacks of traditional monitoring networks (Section 13.3). The opportunities created by mobile technologies to support citizen involvement within environmental monitoring are analysed in Section 13.4 and the building blocks of mobile collaborative networks are then proposed in Section 13.5. To illustrate the issues involved in the implementation of mobile environmental collaborative monitoring networks two examples are analysed: the PEOPLE project and Senses@Watch (Section 13.6). © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 13. Citizens as Mobile Nodes of Environmental Collaborative Monitoring Networks 239 Finally, conclusions and lessons learned from the analysis of the examples are presented and major research questions are identified (Section 13.7). 13.2 Environmental monitoring networks and their spatial, temporal and social characteristics Environmental monitoring activities are strongly associated with the nature of environmental variables, which act in different temporal and spatial scales. The weather is a good example of the unpredictability of environmental variables across temporal and spatial scales. Some variables to be understood require long-term monitoring, such as the case of tributyltin (TBT) antifoulants that may cause, for example, shell deformity and larval mortality in some molluscs (Satillo et al., 2001), while others are event driven and require real-time measurements, such as the concentration levels of carbon monoxide. The design of environmental monitoring systems should consider the frequency, duration and peaks of variables as well as time of response of the sensor or measuring device. Data acquisition systems may be time-based, value-based or hybrid, depending on data characteristics and system goals. The spatial scale may vary from local to regional and global. The issues of scaling within ecological monitoring and its implication for sensor deployment are addressed by Withey et al. (2002). Location is therefore one of the key attributes of environmental variables. The measuring devices used to monitor environmental variables can be fixed-location or portable (see Table 13.1). Fixed-location measuring devices are normally used as part of a continuous, on-line monitoring system. Continuous monitoring has the advantage of enabling immediate notification when there is an upset. Portable measuring devices can be used to analyse any point in the system, but have the disadvantage that they provide measurements only at one point in time. Table 13.1. The spatial component of environmental variables and monitoring measuring devices (adapted from Markowsky et al., 2002). Fixed targets Mobile targets Fixed Measuring Devices The use of fixed sensors to monitor, for example, soil characteristics such as moisture, temperature and nutrient levels. Fixed air quality monitoring stations. Mobile Measuring Devices Monitor specific locations using portable measuring devices. The use of sensors and robotics that move to specific locations to monitor environmental variables. Organism tracking: coupling electronic tags to migratory birds. The use of air quality diffusive samplers by citizens. © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 240 Dynamic and Mobile GIS: Investigating Changes in Space and Time To maximise spatial coverage and the representation of monitoring activities while reducing the costs involved, environmental monitoring networks have been established. These networks have been designed for a variety of applications and goals, and are responsible for collecting and registering the baseline data of environmental systems. Table 13.2 presents examples of criteria to consider when designing a monitoring network. Criteria Spatial coverage Simplicity Representation Minimise costs Duration and frequency Public acceptability that risk is monitored Table 13.2. Examples of network design criteria. Observations From local to global scales. Site selection process must account for spatial variability and distribution. Other data such as demographics, land use information are inputs for site selection. Easy operation and maintenance. Criteria such as the possibility to perform straightforward data analysis are also considered. It may involve criteria such as capture of local maximums or assurance of randomised site selection. Instruments are usually expensive. It may imply a combination of fixed and mobile stations. Capture the temporal dynamics. Estimate both long and short-term trends. Applications such as early warning systems require real-time data while other may use average data. Network design should consider social components such as the case of fears and perceptions. Data collection is the main activity of environmental monitoring networks. Data collection procedures depend on the variable being measured, the spatial and temporal coverage and the equipment available. However, the data collected by environmental monitoring networks present spatial and temporal gaps, which restrict the usefulness of such systems. On the other hand, one of the major limitations of environmental monitoring is to provide timely information to the public, stakeholders, research personnel and managers (Vaughan et al., 2003), which constrains the public debate on the state of the environment. Additionally, monitoring systems in the past have shown difficulties in providing information to raise awareness, educate and provide the basis for informed decisions. Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and concerned citizens have made some voluntary efforts to collect data on the state of the environment, contributing to overcome some of the above-mentioned limitations of monitoring networks. © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 13. Citizens as Mobile Nodes of Environmental Collaborative Monitoring Networks 241 Examples can be found since the early 1900s in projects such as the National Audubon Society Christmas Bird Count. A review of the history of volunteer monitoring is presented by Lee (1994). Volunteer initiatives intend not only to inform the public about the state of the environment, but also to support citizens to take action and participate within environmental decision making. Additionally, volunteer monitoring data have been integrated with professional data and used by NGO, researchers and public agencies to overcome spatial and temporal gaps in official monitoring systems (Stokes et al., 1990; Root and Alpert, 1994; Au et al., 2000; Fortin, 2000; Lawson, 2000; Young-Morse, 2000). On the other hand, volunteer initiatives may intend to educate citizens about the environment and the methods to evaluate its quality. The GLOBE project, where primary and secondary students carry out scientifically valid measurements in the fields of atmosphere, hydrology, soils and land cover, is an example of an educational initiative. However, the impact of volunteer-collected data is limited mainly due to a lack of data credibility. Additionally, the organisation and motivation of volunteer projects restrict the impact of such initiatives. Volunteer monitoring is usually organised around particular motivations or events (for example the above-mentioned National Audubon Society Christmas Bird Count). This scenario results in isolated data collection points, not ensuring spatial, temporal and thematic coverage and above all, not facilitating the integration of citizen-collected data with other initiatives. The challenge is to link citizens and their data collection activities creating a monitoring network that promotes data representativeness. A collaborative framework is required to support volunteer tasks and increase the impact of volunteer initiatives. Networks are good organising tools due to their flexibility and adaptability (Castels, 2001). The creation of environmental collaborative monitoring networks, as proposed in this chapter, may be a way to promote citizen participation within environmental monitoring. 13.3. Environmental collaborative monitoring networks Traditionally, in environmental monitoring networks, the nodes are sensors or measuring devices connected to data loggers. In the case of automated networks, these nodes are connected by telemetry and the data are transferred to a central node, which is usually the owner of the network. However, the creation of a network that takes advantage of volunteer monitoring initiatives implies a different approach, where public involvement and collaboration play a major role. In ECMN, the nodes are citizens or groups of citizens willing to participate within environmental monitoring, while the links show relationships or flows between the nodes (see Box 13.1 that describes the characteristics of ECMN nodes and links). The characteristics of the nodes vary according to the tasks performed by each citizen or group of citizens. Each node may play different roles from data collection to data management or activism promotion. ECMN should consider the diversity of volunteer initiatives, from individual complaints to formal data collection activities, and take advantage of citizen efforts. For the purposes of illustration, the sequence of steps involved in the creation of an © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ... - tailieumienphi.vn