Community Participation and Geographic Information Systems - Chapter 26

Chapter 26 A model for evaluating public participation GIS Michael Barndt 26.1 INTRODUCTION In this chapter, observations about the role of GIS as a tool supporting urban neighbourhood revitalization are presented and specific criteria are offered for the evaluation of PPGIS. To date, PPGIS projects have been restricted by limited resources, small local organizations with non-profes-sional staffs and boards, a ‘distance’ between grassroots organizations and government and business sectors, and, fundamental political differences among many players. Opportunities for GIS tools to overcome these limi-tations are often overstated. A number of models have emerged over the last decade for commun-ity information and research incorporating GIS. The Nonprofit Center of Milwaukee Data Center programme began as an independent entrepre-neurial model. Most of the initial funding came from community clients. Much community information experience has been episodic, impacting communities for only short periods of time and in fairly limited ways. Few efforts have been comprehensive. Some programmes have organized detailed information, but played a limited role in assuring that the data are used. Other programmes have stressed service, but have struggled with access and resources to improve information systems. Many programmes have been sector specific and limited to housing, health, education, or envir-onmental concerns. It is necessary to frame critical evaluation questions and criteria that may be used to critique and refine existing PPGIS programmes. For example, how do we assess the programmes? What expressions of broader objectives for community change might guide the way we use this tool in the service of community? In this chapter, three basic contexts for evaluation are proposed: 1 understanding and the value of PPGIS project results, 2 management of PPGIS projects, and 3 PPGIS and community development principles. © 2002 Taylor & Francis A model for evaluating PPGIS 347 I will review topics within each of these contexts and occasionally identify projects of the Nonprofit Center of Milwaukee Data Center programme to demonstrate relevant successes, limitations and failures. 26.2 THE VALUE OF PPGIS PROJECT RESULTS 26.2.1 Appropriate information Is the material produced appropriate to the tasks community organizations are addressing? Can the data be organized to match the issues that are to be addressed? Available data is often limited and may not be sharply focused. For example, a coalition of organizations seeking to change the process for renewing alcohol licences could protest the concentration of licences in spe-cific areas of the city, but could not clearly isolate the problem licence sites within this data. They were also not able to link crime data to license site data because the level of resolution of crime data was restricted at the time to census tract aggregates. Data may also miss important elements. For example, many vacant lots in Milwaukee’s central city are sold to adjacent property owners obscuring the record of the growing number of vacant lots. Data may also not make important distinctions. A bank loan reported in the HMDA (Home Mortgage Disclosure Act) may be to a speculator rather than to a houseowner. Data may be biased towards a particular perspective. Evidence that housing stock has been increased within a neighbourhood may avoid the question of whether it is affordable to local residents. Data may cover too much ground. Examination of crime rates without recogni-tion of the different categories of crime may limit insight into prevention strategies. Data may represent an incomplete picture. A Children’s Hospital may have a complete database on children treated for asthma, but a sub-stantial number of children may have been served elsewhere. 26.2.2 Action oriented Can the organization receiving the information use it to support decisions, enhance communication or persuade others? Data should be detailed enough to inform actions. ‘Indicators’ projects tend to focus upon a small set of num-bers, which may be used to persuade someone that action is necessary, but will offer little information to programme planning and implementation. Data also needs to be scaled to the level of action. Even census block data is not enough for an organizer seeking to organize a block. The organizer requires ‘face-block’ information. Data often requires substantial digestion before it can be used effectively. The HMDA data on the RTK Internet site is such an example. © 2002 Taylor & Francis 348 M. Barndt Data should help to refine quantities of information and provide a focus. A map of the location of incidents of lead poisoning will be enhanced by using statistical analysis to isolate ‘hot spots’ within the data to permit prioritizing and targeting of programmes. Data that only add to existing evidence of a problem may not be at all useful when an organizational response is not feasible. For example, neighbourhood organizations only tend to be interested in crime information when they are in a position to use that information in a local programme. Data must become information; information must become knowledge. Knowledge must then be translated into decision support for informed choices. 26.2.3 Timely For organizations to adapt to better use of information, it should be avail-able within the schedule of the organization. Strategic planning may be easily managed as an occasional activity with substantial lead-time. But for GIS to fit the management frame of organizations, material needs to be available quickly. For GIS to be relevant to the work of staff, information may need to be available immediately – at the staff member’s desktop. For the power of GIS to be fully realized in group decision-making, probing requests for additional information, scenario development and comparative analysis tools should be available in real time, while participants are explor-ing options. This final step is embedded in a broader PPGIS vision. The schedule of a local organization may be different than that of a tech-nical assistance resource. For example, university calendars and perspectives towards time may seriously limit the capacity of universities to contribute to short-term needs of community organizations. Timeliness is also comprom-ised by the delays often encountered accessing information, negotiating for access, waiting for preprocessing work to be done by the organization main-taining the data and by the frequent need to rework the data for new uses. Community organizations set priorities each year among the many pos-sible subjects that they may focus upon. These priorities should not be dis-torted by which project has immediate access to data. But frequently, the research programmes of data resources are shaped by the pragmatic recog-nition that some information is available for work and other material is not. 26.2.4 Accurate How accurate are PPGIS results? In community settings, information is frequently limited. But a high degree of precision may not be required. However, at a neighbourhood level, accuracy is often more important than at larger settings. If 10 per cent of addresses cannot be geocoded, that may be in part a result of a street name change that could represent a large error from a neighbourhood perspective. Extractions of lists that seem complete © 2002 Taylor & Francis A model for evaluating PPGIS 349 enough for a community wide view may be deficient at a local level where individual items on the list are important. Many barriers to accuracy are built into the data. Administrative data often retain little or no historical information. Data may be collected on an as-needed basis, with substantial variations in the age of the informa-tion. Those who collect data may introduce errors. Strategies to address these issues over time are also important. Many times, local knowledge can be used to clear up errors and limitations in large data sets. Little has been done to structure larger data systems to incorporate changes that may be contributed by local level actors. The level of detail can matter at all levels. Often zip code data is too crude to generate accurate results because of the high degree of heterogeneity within the areas. Even block level data may be inappropriate when organizations work with face-block information. 26.2.5 Insightful As many who work with neighbourhood data do not know the neigh-bourhood well, data and maps leave the impression that the neighbour-hood has been revealed. Data are often a weak reflection of reality. These are often used by those who understand an issue or place to communicate to others some of what the local organizations already know. How often do data inform those with an intimate perspective? To what extent are myths about a community challenged by the facts? Local perceptions may be different than reality. For example, neighbourhoods are often convinced that crime problems are substantial when only small increases have occurred. The search for patterns in data can suggest unanticipated relationships. But these can be the result of errors in data or models or preparation of materials. Generally face validity is a useful check against the meaningful-ness of results. How important is it that work reveals something new? Much of the time it will not happen. But the results should be valued when they do. 26.2.6 Time perspective The substantial improvement in data access and mapping tools may mask the fact that historical information may be very limited. Such information may be difficult to access and analyse, but often trends are important. It may also be important to place the experiences in one neighbourhood in perspective. How does it compare to other neighbourhoods in the city and with other cities? In the absence of mechanisms for sharing much more than census information, US neighbourhoods are woefully ignorant of how their community compares with others. © 2002 Taylor & Francis 350 M. Barndt 26.2.7 Synergistic An additional concern is that when data and research are focused upon one sector, an advantage may be lost. From the perspective of neighbourhoods, problems are often interlocking. Data available from only one sector, e.g. housing files, may offer an incomplete perspective. Those organizations or departments that collect data tend to focus only upon the data that they col-lect. An important synergy can result when information from several sources is brought together. Information clearinghouse objectives address this ques-tion by creating a central location to bring data together. Additionally, a clearinghouse may be able to explore relationships across datasets by link-ing records at a level that is not available to the public. 26.2.8 Combining qualitative and quantitative information There is often a mismatch between those who work with the quantitative interpretation of data and those who approach an issue from the direct knowledge of persons affected by the issue. Organizations who know the story best often reject the use of quantitative information. They have often learned that political arguments can be won with a personalized approach to the issue. But the quantitative and analytical approach to data can also be an important political tool. Ultimately, ‘stories’ can be disregarded if the listener does not accept how typical the cases may be. Creative ways should be found to link the two perspectives. This is often done by leaving the final responsibility for reports in the hands of those who know the stories. This requires a substantial investment by all parties to learn to work together. 26.3 MANAGEMENT OF PPGIS PROJECTS 26.3.1 Sustainability How are PPGIS programmes supported and are they sustainable? Foundation supported programmes are often trapped by the reality that the funding is short-term. This limits the capacity of the system to design for a long-term role. Grant-based budgets may also lead to substantial swings in resources from excess to substantial cutbacks. Programmes expected to raise revenue through fees can also be limited within this arena. Funding options may drive the priorities of a programme toward serving the needs of well-endowed organizations who can afford the service and who already appreciate the value of the work. One element of a funding model should be to find ways to reduce costs and to deliver basic services for less and less cost. Development efforts should use grant funding to create the procedures that routinize long-term © 2002 Taylor & Francis ... - tailieumienphi.vn