Coastal Lagoons - Chapter 7

7 Monitoring Program Design Eugeniusz Andrulewicz and Boris Chubarenko CONTENTS 7.1 Introduction 7.1.1 Definition of Environmental Monitoring 7.1.2 Objectives of Environmental Monitoring 7.1.3 Some Examples of Current Monitoring Programs 7.1.4 Issues Specific to Monitoring of Lagoons 7.2 Monitoring System Design 7.2.1 Monitoring for Meteorological and Hydrodynamic Parameters 7.2.2 Monitoring for Physical Parameters 7.2.3 Monitoring for Chemical Parameters 7.2.4 Monitoring for Biological Parameters 7.2.5 Monitoring of Impact of Different Uses of Lagoons 7.3 Monitoring-Related Programs 7.3.1 Monitoring Guidelines and Quality Assurance Program 7.3.2 Data Formats and Data Banking 7.4 Relationship between Monitoring and Modeling 7.4.1 Perspective: Monitoring to Modeling 7.4.2 Perspective: Modeling to Monitoring 7.4.3 Short-Term Data Collection for Model Implementation 7.4.4 Model-Accompanied Current Data Supply 7.4.5 Practical Recommendations for the Design of Short-Term Data Collection 7.5 Assessment of Monitoring Results and Forms of Presentation 7.6 Final Remarks and Conclusions References 7.1 INTRODUCTION Monitoring is the application of fundamental scientific methods of observation of the environment. As a modern tool of water management, monitoring is deeply rooted in science. It is the assessment method of comprehensive determination of the current state of environmental conditions. Monitoring measures are for descrip-tion rather than prediction; however, monitoring data are used for various purposes, including prediction scenarios/modeling. © 2005 by CRC Press In contrast, modeling is a relatively new method rooted in engineering, especially its modification as computer modeling, which aims to simulate the behavior and response of water conditions to external and internal impacts. Monitoring is very useful for making an environmental assessment, while modeling is applied for an impact assessment. Modeling predicts trends and effects of future actions (see Chapter 6 for details). This chapter first discusses what monitoring is and describes its various aspects. The relationships between monitoring and modeling as complementary tools for current water quality management are presented. 7.1.1 DEFINITION OF ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING Monitoring has been defined by the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) as “the process of repetitive observing for defined purposes, of one or more elements of the environment, according to prearranged schedules in space and in time and using comparable methodologies for environmental sensing and data collection.”1 Implicit in this definition are a number of points: · The purposes for undertaking monitoring vary, but it is understood that information is collected for a defined purpose, and not simply because it is available. · Information gathering is undertaken following a prearranged schedule, which identifies frequency of sample collection, locations, and what infor-mation is collected. · Monitoring involves repetitive, continuous sampling, resulting in a series of three-dimensional, cross-sectional, longitudinal, lateral, and temporal data. · Sampling, storage, preservation, and analysis must be done systematically, utilizing compatible methodologies following rigorous procedures, to ensure that information is comparable. Monitoring is distinguished from data collection by its long-term, continuous nature. Data collection efforts are sometimes referred to as short-term monitoring, but it is important to maintain a distinction from monitoring, because monitoring generally has different objectives than data collection. Every environmental monitoring program should contain the following components: · Monitoring guidelines (for sample collection, storage, preservation, and analysis) · Quality assurance program (procedure of calibration and comparability of results) · Data formats (for preparing data and relevant information for a data bank) · Data bank (for storage and processing of data) Monitoring is usually followed by environmental assessment, which is an indispensable step in decision making. Monitoring and research are very often © 2005 by CRC Press treated as separate activities, but monitoring also should be regarded as a research activity. The basic difference between monitoring and research is already included in the definition of monitoring. Monitoring is a research activity that has three important features: “prearranged schedule,” “repetitive observing,” and “compa-rable methodologies.” 7.1.2 OBJECTIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING Monitoring is not simply a scientific exercise—it is also a management tool. It is a crucial element in environmental decision support systems. Basically, the purpose of monitoring is to provide information that is needed by decision makers. The information desired by decision makers should be identified in the earlier stages of the decision support system, corresponding to the top box in Figure 7.1. Monitoring usually serves the purpose of generating information needed to solve an environment-related problem. Furthermore, monitoring must be designed to fulfill the needs expressed in the lower portion of Figure 7.1; these needs relate to assess-ment of results and ultimate decision making. Further assessment of the effects of implementation of decisions forms a feedback loop, where improvements in moni-toring programs are then identified. Information should be presented in such a way that it can be incorporated into decision making/implementation. Assessment must therefore reflect the ultimate needs of decision makers. Decision-making requirements are the driving forces behind monitoring program design as explained in Chapter 8. These requirements may include one or more of the following: information on the state of the environment, natural and anthropogenic pressures, and trend analysis including possibly comparison with background values or other locations. It is therefore important that decision makers are involved in the monitoring program development process. The decision makers have the responsi-bility of defining clear, measurable goals and objectives. Also, because long-term series of regular measurements are crucial for modeling (see Chapter 6 for details) and assessment, repetitive measurements of main param-eters should be continued for a long period of time. Good decisions can only be made on the basis of long-term information. 7.1.3 SOME EXAMPLES OF CURRENT MONITORING PROGRAMS Perhaps the oldest marine monitoring program is related to biological resource assessment, including monitoring of commercial fish species in the North Atlantic and adjacent marine waters. Regular observations began under the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) in the early 1900s and are still ongoing. In the 1960s, when the effects of pollution started to become apparent, ICES expanded its efforts to advise on the development of marine environmental moni-toring programs.2 Advice has been utilized by commissions representing different water bodies (Baltic Sea, North Sea, Arctic seas, etc.). © 2005 by CRC Press Identification of environmental problems/ Setting up goals Identification of ecosystem attributes Inventory of available research data Monitoring system design Monitoring data Assessment of data/Environmental assessment/ Ecosystem modeling Decision making FIGURE 7.1 Relationship of monitoring to the decision-making process. Examples of current international monitoring programs related to the marine environment are the Joint Assessment and Monitoring Program (JAMP), established to monitor environmental quality throughout the North-East Atlantic; the Cooper-ative Baltic Monitoring Program (COMBINE); the Arctic Monitoring and Assess-ment Program (AMAP); and the Monitoring and Research Program of the Medi-terranean Action Plan (MEDPOL). In addition to international monitoring programs, various national monitoring programs serve different purposes according to national needs and specific environmental problems. © 2005 by CRC Press During the past 25 years, monitoring has evolved from physico-chemical col-lection of information to monitoring of ecosystems and biological effects. Most of the present monitoring programs have become more integrated among disciplines (hydrology, chemistry, biology) and have expanded to cover effluents originating from within catchment areas.3 7.1.4 ISSUES SPECIFIC TO MONITORING OF LAGOONS Lagoons are morphologically and ecologically complex, subject to constantly changing environmental conditions generally of much greater magnitude than is the case in the open sea (see Chapter 2 for details). For example, temperature may range from ice conditions to very warm waters; salinity may range from freshwater to hypersalinity; wave action usually reaches the bottom, causing dynamic conditions and high energy habitats; and current speed and direction may change frequently, particularly in inlets/out-lets of lagoons and in their vicinity. Due to the transitional nature of lagoons, they usually display a number of specific features, which require development of monitoring methods and techniques specifically tailored to the ecosystem. In some cases, techniques utilized in freshwater and/or saltwater bodies may not be applicable or relevant.4 These difficulties are compounded by the variable, dynamic nature of many lagoons. Lagoons often contain a great variety of pelagic and benthic habitats (see Chapter 5 for details). For example, lagoons may include some or all of the following habitats: wetlands, marshes, sea grass meadows, intertidal flats, and upland areas, as well as others. Lagoons may have a variety of bottom sediment and sedimentation conditions. Due to great variability of conditions, organisms usually live under a significant amount of natural stress; therefore, anthropogenic stress is particularly troublesome in such an environment. There is no general scheme for monitoring of lagoons. Lagoon monitoring there-fore needs to be designed with the specific water body in mind. A knowledge of the basic parameters of the given lagoon is essential, including trophic status, water exchange, morphology, salinity, annual variability, etc. Some aspects, which may be important for lagoon monitoring system design, are discussed in the following sections. 7.2 MONITORING SYSTEM DESIGN There is no tradition of monitoring coastal areas as there is for monitoring open sea or freshwater areas. Monitoring system design for coastal zones is less advanced and in many cases needs to be developed from the beginning. Design efforts can borrow elements from the monitoring of marine waters and fresh waters, where monitoring has been under way for some time.5,6 As previously mentioned, the most important consideration regarding monitoring system design is the need to establish clear goals. These goals will then lead to determining what information is needed to fulfill the goals. However, this may be problematic due to differences in problem definition, understanding of cause/effect relationships, the interjurisdictional nature of problems, etc. Monitoring should be designed to account for the unique characteristics of a lagoon ecosystem (see Chapters 2 and 5) and the specific environmental problems and the socio-economic systems (see Chapter 8) encountered in the lagoon watershed. There is © 2005 by CRC Press ... - tailieumienphi.vn