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- Alaşehir type - rolling hinge mechanism in the northern margin of Büyük Menderes Graben: Evidence from seismic reflection and recent thermochronological data
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- Turkish Journal of Earth Sciences Turkish J Earth Sci
(2021) 30: 322-340
http://journals.tubitak.gov.tr/earth/
© TÜBİTAK
Research Article doi:10.3906/yer-2003-2
Alaşehir type - rolling hinge mechanism in the northern margin of Büyük Menderes
Graben: Evidence from seismic reflection and recent thermochronological data
1,2, 1
Fevzi Mert TÜRESİN *, Gürol SEYİTOĞLU
1
Department of Geological Engineering, Tectonics Research Group, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey
2
Turkish Petroleum Company (TPAO), Ankara, Turkey
Received: 10.03.2020 Accepted/Published Online: 26.01.2021 Final Version: 17.05.2021
Abstract: Isotopic and thermochronological data were recently obtained from the footwall of the Büyük Menderes detachment ranges
from 29.0 ± 1.9 Ma (ZFT) to 1.6 ± 0.2 Ma (Ap U - Th / He), and they can be grouped in three different time intervals. These results are
well explained by the Alaşehir type-rolling hinge mechanism, which suggests active rotated initial normal fault during successive normal
fault development of the graben formation. This paper suggests that the Alaşehir type-rolling hinge mechanism is applicable to the
Büyük Menderes graben by using field observations, published isotopic / thermochronological and subsurface data. It also contributes
to the long-lasting discussion about the activation problem on the low-angle normal faults.
Key words: Western Anatolia, extensional tectonics, Büyük Menderes, detachment fault, seismic profile, rolling hinge
1. Introduction was also pointed out in a study suggesting a 3D model for
One of the most debated issues in structural geology is the the formation of Turtleback structures and a new name,
development of high-angle vs. low-angle normal faults. the “Alaşehir type-rolling hinge model”, was introduced
The mechanical model of Anderson (1942) suggests that to explain the activation on the rotated low-angle normal
normal faults form and slip with high dip values ( > 45°); fault (Seyitoğlu et al., 2014) (Figure 1a,1c), which is
however, many studies report low-angle normal faults different from the original rolling hinge model proposing
especially in highly extended areas such as metamorphic inactive rotated low-angle faults (Buck, 1988; Wernicke
core complexes since the early 1980’s (Davis, 1980; and Axen, 1988) (Figure 1a,1b).
Wernicke, 1981). Although some studies suggest low- This research aims to investigate whether the
angle normal faults formed in their present orientation Alaşehir type - rolling hinge model applies to the Büyük
and were active at low angles (e.g. Davis and Lister, 1988; Menderes Graben by using field observations, seismic
Scott and Lister, 1992; Wernicke, 1995), others suggest reflection studies, and recently available isotopic/
that initial high-angle normal faults rotated flexurally into thermochronological ages in a key location around Köşk
an inactive low-angle position known as the rolling hinge (Figure 2).
model (Buck, 1988; Wernicke and Axen, 1988) (Figure 1a,
b). One of the criteria of rolling hinge model is that the age 2. Geological setting
of the normal faults becomes younger towards the hanging The Menderes massif is located on the eastern part of the
wall of the initial normal fault (Buck, 1988; Wernicke Aegean extensional terrane bounded by the İzmir - Ankara
and Axen, 1988). This feature has been demonstrated at Suture Zone and the Lycian Nappes from north and south,
the Alaşehir Graben in western Turkey, and it has been respectively, in western Turkey (Figure 2). According to
proposed that the evolution of the graben formation is the classical view, it is composed of a Precambrian gneissic
similar to the flexural rotation / rolling hinge mechanism core and Paleozoic - Early Tertiary metasedimentary cover,
(Seyitoğlu and Şen, 1998; Seyitoğlu et al., 2002). In detail, separated by an unconformity (Şengör et al., 1984; Candan
however, it is clearly indicated that the activation of et al., 2011). Today it is widely accepted that the Menderes
rotated low-angle faults causes the exhumation of a greater massif is a metamorphic core complex. Its lower plate
amount of lower plate rocks than the original rolling hinge rocks are gneisses and high-grade mica schists with lesser
model (Seyitoğlu et al., 2002) (Figure 1a, 1c). This issue amounts of amphibolite (metagabbro, eclogite), quartzite,
* Correspondence: mturesin@tpao.gov.tr
322
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
- TÜRESİN and SEYİTOĞLU / Turkish J Earth Sci
a) symmetrical exhumation of the central Menderes massif
in which the rolling hinge mechanism may operate
(Seyitoğlu and Şen, 1998; Gessner et al., 2001; Seyitoğlu et
al., 2002; 2014; Ring et al., 2003; Demircioğlu et al., 2010).
There are other views to explain the tectono-
sedimentary evolution of the grabens (Emre and Sözbilir,
1997; Koçyiğit et al., 1999; Bozkurt, 2000; Bozkurt and
b) c)
Sözbilir, 2004; Rojay et al. 2005; Bozkurt and Rojay, 2005;
Gürer et al. 2009; Çiftçi and Bozkurt 2010).
Emre and Sözbilir (1997) propose asymmetrical
exhumation for the Central menderes core complex. In
their model, the main breakaway fault is located on the
Figure 1. a) Initial high-angle normal fault. b) The original, southern margin of the Büyük Menderes Graben and the
classic rolling hinge mechanism (Buck, 1988; Wernicke and Alaşehir (Gediz) Graben has an initial low-angle normal
Axen, 1988) where the displacement of Fault I remains constant fault. However, later studies indicate that the central
and the Fault I is inactive through the process. c) The Alaşehir Menderes massif is a symmetrical core complex (Gessner
type-rolling hinge mechanism (Seyitoğlu et al., 2002; 2014) et al. 2001; Ring et al., 2003; Seyitoğlu et al., 2004), and
where the displacement of Fault I gradually increases and the there is no sign of a breakaway fault in the Büyük Menderes
Fault I is active through the process. D: displacement, D + x: Graben.
gradually increasing displacement. Faults are getting younger to Koçyiğit et al. (1999) suggest Late Miocene - Early
basinward as shown successive Roman numerals. Pliocene regional compressional phase between the
extensional phases (two - stage extension model) during
and marble. The upper plate rocks are made up of non- the graben formation. The counter argument to this view
and low-grade metamorphic rocks, ophiolitic rocks, and comes from the nearly horizontal nature of the Lower -
late Cenozoic sedimentary units (Bozkurt and Park, 1994; Middle Miocene İnay Group in the Uşak - Güre basin,
Gessner et al., 2001; Işık and Tekeli, 2001; Işık et al. 2003; which is immediately north of the Alaşehir Graben
Ring et al., 2003; Seyitoğlu et al., 2004). (Seyitoğlu, 1999).
The complete exhumation history of the Menderes Bozkurt (2000) argues the initial high-angle normal
massif has been explained by two main models. The faulting for the Büyük Menderes Graben and suggests
symmetrical exhumation model of Ring et al. (2003) a two - stage extension in which the age of neotectonic
suggests that the massif initially exhumed along with the extension is Pliocene with the claim of inconsistencies
south-dipping Lycian detachment and the north-dipping between palynological (Eskihisar sporomorph association
Simav detachment. The asymmetrical exhumation model dated 20-14 Ma of Seyitoğlu and Scott 1992) and Pliocene
of Seyitoğlu et al. (2004), however, proposed that the - early Pleistocene micromammalian data. However, Şen
massif exhumed along the north-dipping Datça-Kale and Seyitoğlu (2009) provide magnetostratigraphic age
Main Breakaway Fault and its northern continuation, the data, which are consistent with the palynological ages and
Simav detachment, in Oligocene times. For the second demonstrate by detail mapping that the micrommalian age
stage of exhumation, both models are in agreement that data come from younger stratigraphical unit.
the central Menderes massif was further exhumed along Bozkurt and Sözbilir (2004) questioned validity
the bivergent Alaşehir and Büyük Menderes detachment of the rolling hinge model by providing cross-cutting
faults bounding Alaşehir and Büyük Menderes Grabens, relationships between the low and high angle faults in the
respectively (Gessner et al. 2001; Ring et al., 2003; Seyitoğlu Alaşehir Graben. On the other hand, Şen and Seyitoğlu
et al., 2004) (Figure 2). (2009) pointed out that the youngest high-angle normal
The advantage of the first stage asymmetrical faults chopped the earlier rolling hinge related structures
exhumation of the Menderes massif (Seyitoğlu et al., 2004; in the model of Seyitoğlu et al. (2002) and therefore, the
Seyitoğlu and Işık, 2015) is to explain (1) the Oligocene observation of Bozkurt and Sözbilir (2004) is insufficient
sedimentary basin formation in SW Turkey (see also to disprove the existence of the rolling hinge mechanism
Elmas et al., 2019); (2) the dominant top-to-the north in the earlier history of the graben formation.
sense of shear over the entire Menderes massif; (3) the Rojay et al. (2005) and Bozkurt and Rojay (2005)
controversial transport directions of the Lycian nappes define a reverse fault at the northern margin of the Küçük
(i.e. Bozkurt and Park, 1999; Collins and Robertson, 2003; Menderes Graben and it is interpreted as an evidence of a
Rimmele et al., 2003) in SW Turkey. compressional phase supporting the two-stage extension
The E - W trending Alaşehir and Büyük Menderes model. The same structure is closely examined by Seyitoğlu
Grabens play an important role in the second stage and Işık (2009) and the unusual high - angle, south dipping
323
- TÜRESİN and SEYİTOĞLU / Turkish J Earth Sci
Figure 2. Menderes Metamorphic core complex in western Turkey (after Seyitoğlu et al., 2004).
normal fault is mapped. The general position of the Küçük Plio-Quaternary, the Menderes massif was exhumed along
Menderes Graben is in the axial zone of the huge syncline, with the Büyük Menderes detachment. In the second pulse
which is created by the rolling hinge mechanism of the during Holocene, E-W trending normal faults developed,
boundary faults of the Alaşehir and Büyük Menderes and, in the final third pulse, active normal faulting
Grabens. The unusual high-angle of normal fault is created associated with earthquakes. They also suggest that the
by the rotation along the horizontal axis (Seyitoğlu and post collisional intra-continental convergence continued
Işık, 2009). until Middle Pliocene times. The young and short duration
Gürer et al. (2009) propose three pulsed evolution for of graben formation is completely contrary to the isotopic
the Büyük Menderes Graben. In the first pulse, during dates obtained from the detachment surfaces (see below)
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and, more importantly, suggested that Plio - Quaternary detachment surfaces indicate that it was active as recently
exhumation of the Menderes massif cannot explain the as 1.75 Ma (for detail discussion on this issue see Seyitoğlu
mylonitic fragments in the Early Miocene sedimentary and Işık, 2015).
basins, and it is entirely contradictory with the published The recent study of Asti et al. (2019) also proposed
thermochronological data (Ring et al., 2003). initial low-angle normal fault for the Alaşehir Graben.
Çiftçi and Bozkurt (2010) evaluate that the Alaşehir Their model (Asti et al. 2019, fig. 10) suggests a ramp basin
(Gediz) Graben formation has episodic Miocene and and underlying a low-angle shear zone developed after the
post-Miocene phases under the N-S extension. Apart from emplacement of Salihli granitoid. However, it is known
some of the other studies refusing the first sedimentary from the study of Işık et al. (2003) that the synextensional
unit as an E-W trending graben fill (i.e. Yazman, 1997; Salihli granitoid emplaced into an existing shear zone
Yılmaz et al., 2000; Yılmaz and Gelişli, 2003; Gürer et al., and its equivalent on the surface; the high-angle “Fault I”
2009), Çiftçi and Bozkurt (2010) agree with the Seyitoğlu controls the accumulation of first and second sedimentary
et al. (2002) that the first sedimentary unit, the Alaşehir packages of the Alaşehir Graben (see below) (Seyitoğlu
formation (see below) belongs to the E-W trending et al. 2014). In order to create a ramp basin (Fillmore,
Alaşehir Graben. However, while the formerly high - angle, 1993; Vetti and Fossen, 2012) a main breakaway fault
presently low-angle Alaşehir detachment is considered a should be operational in the region, but Asti et al. (2019)
graben bounding structure (Seyitoğlu et al. 2002), Çiftçi do not mention about any breakaway fault in the region.
and Bozkurt (2010) suggest that the near equivalent of Moreover, in the Asti et al.’s model, the first sedimentary
Fault II of Seyitoğlu et al. (2002) is the master graben package of Alaşehir Graben (i.e. Alaşehir formation see
bounding fault. below) is accumulated in a ramp basin with no marginal
A recent publication (Sümer et al., 2020) claiming faults, and, more importantly, this basin developed in the
existence of rolling hinge mechanism in the Büyük upper plate of the core complex, and it has no chance to
Menderes Graben. Their study area could be
get material from the lower plate (see Fillmore, 1993; Vetti
morphologically in the north of Büyük Menderes Graben,
and Fossen, 2012). This suggestion does not fit the field
but when the Neogene paleogeography is concerned, they
observations that the lowermost layers of first sedimentary
studied in the northern Denizli basin (Koçyiğit, 2005;
package of Alaşehir Graben has angular boulder
Kaymakçı, 2006; Alçiçek et al., 2007; Seyitoğlu and Işık,
conglomerates, which contain mylonites of the lower plate
2015). Since they proposed initial low-angle normal fault
rocks. This material must be on the surface due to the first
at the beginning of the graben formation (Sümer et al.,
stage asymmetrical exhumation of the Menderes massif
2020; page 253), their claim does not fit the classic rolling
(Seyitoğlu et al., 2002; 2004). Another unrealistic point
hinge mechanism (Buck, 1988; Wernicke and Axen, 1988),
which requires an initial high-angle normal fault. in Asti et al.’s model is the complete erosion of the Block
As seen from the summary of previous studies above, 1 with time. This block contains the graben bounding
there are major disagreements on the geology of western inevitable high-angle fault that control accumulation of
Turkey, readers may consult to Seyitoğlu and Işık (2015) second and third sedimentary packages (Asti et al., 2019).
for broader and more detailed discussions. From this point As can be seen above assessment, the initial low-angle
forward, we will evaluate only papers suggesting a low - normal fault suggestions have no geological base in the
angle origin of the normal faults responsible for the graben Alaşehir Graben.
formation, which are closely related to the subject of this
paper and incompatible with the classical rolling hinge 3. The Alaşehir type-rolling hinge mechanism and its
mechanism. difference from the classic model
The most comprehensive study having footwall and The Alaşehir Graben fill is composed of four sedimentary
hanging wall data proposing the initial low-angle normal units. Alaşehir and Kurşunlu formations have Eskihisar
fault in the graben formation is the paper of Öner and sporomorph association (20-14 Ma) (Seyitoğlu and Scott,
Dilek (2011) besides the Hetzel et al. (1995) and Sözbilir 1996; Ediger et al., 1996) and the magnetostratigraphic
(2001). However, initial low-angle graben bounding fault results indicate that the transition from the Alaşehir to the
suggestion of Öner and Dilek (2011) is unlikely, according Kurşunlu formation occurred between 16.6-14.6 Ma (Şen
to their geological map, the lacustrine depocenter is close and Seyitoğlu, 2009). These two formations accumulated
to the graben bounding fault, which is inconsistent with in the hanging wall of high-angle Fault I (Figure 3a)
the supra-detachment basin configuration of Friedmann during Early–Middle Miocene. In the Pliocene, Fault II
and Burbank (1995). Moreover, according to the model of developed in the hanging wall of Fault I and controls the
Öner and Dilek (2011), the high-angle normal faults cut sedimentation of the Sart formation bearing Late Pliocene
the initial low-angle graben bounding fault and it becomes mammalian fossils (Şan, 1998) that unconformably overlie
inactive, but available age data (see below) from the the Alaşehir and Kurşunlu formations (Figure 3b). During
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Quaternary, Fault III developed in the hanging wall of Fault 4. The Alaşehir type - rolling hinge mechanism in the
II and guides the accumulation of Quaternary deposits Büyük Menderes Graben
(Figure 3c) (Seyitoğlu et al., 2002). The geological map of The Büyük Menderes Graben is a mirror image of the
the graben shows that Fault I, the oldest graben-bounding Alaşehir Graben and the graben bounding structure,
fault, became a low-angle normal fault, and the other faults the Büyük Menderes detachment (Fault I) is located on
(Fault II and III) developed successively in its hanging the northern margin of the Büyük Menderes Graben
wall. This situation resembles the flexural rotation/rolling (Emre and Sözbilir, 1997; Göğüş, 2004) (Figure 2). The
hinge mechanism of Buck (1988) and Wernicke and lower plate rocks are composed of kyanite – staurolite -
Axen (1998) except for one difference, which is the field garnet phyllite, mica schist, chlorite phyllite, and marble.
observation demonstrating the activity of rotated Fault The upper plate rocks are augen gneisses, metavolcanics
I (Seyitoğlu et al., 2002). Fault I, the rotated low-angle (leptite) and kyanite-garnet schist (Candan et al., 1992;
normal fault, known as the Alaşehir detachment, shows a Lips et al., 2001; Özer and Sözbilir, 2003; Göğüş, 2004) and
ductile to brittle transition with a top to the north-northeast Neogene sedimentary units. Although detachment faults
sense of shearing (Işık et al., 2003) and continues its generally separate from high-grade metamorphic rocks in
activity demonstrated by a low-angle shear zone affected lower plate to low-grade or nonmetamorphic rocks in the
Kurşunlu formation after the formation of Fault II in its upper plate, the situation is reverse in the Büyük Menderes
hanging wall (Seyitoğlu et al., 2002; see figure 11). Later, detachment. It is documented and interpreted by Candan
the same low-angle shear zone was dated by Hetzel et al. et al. (1992) that high-grade metamorphic units over
(2013) providing K-Ar ages (9.20 ± 0.3 and 3.40 ± 0.1 Ma) thrusted low-grade metamorphic rocks. All current studies
(Figure 3b). The thermochronological and isotopic data agree in the region that the northward-directed transport
obtained from the Alaşehir detachment (Gessner et al., predates the top-to-south sense of shear on the Büyük
2001; Lips et al., 2001; Catlos and Çemen, 2005; Glodny Menderes detachment (Lips et al., 2001; Özer and Sözbilir,
and Hetzel, 2007; Catlos et al., 2010; Buscher et al., 2003; Göğüş, 2004). The northward-directed transport
2013; Hetzel et al., 2013) indicate that the fault activation dated as 36 ± 2 Ma (Lips et al., 2001) could be related to the
occurred in at least three different time intervals (Figure first Oligocene asymmetrical exhumation of the Menderes
3d) (see Seyitoğlu et al., 2014 for complete database and massif (Seyitoğlu et al., 2004) rather than the thrusting
diagrams). Two of the intervals correspond to when the (Candan et al., 1992; Hetzel et al., 1998; Bozkurt and
Alaşehir detachment was in a low angle position. The Park, 1999; Okay, 2001; Whitney and Bozkurt, 2002). The
first interval (20-15 Ma) corresponds to the time when the normal faults in the north of the Büyük Menderes Graben
Alaşehir detachment was a high-angle normal fault (Fault have been dated and provided the oldest K-Ar ages of 22.3
I) controlling accumulation of the Alaşehir and Kurşunlu ± 0.7 Ma (Hetzel et al., 2013), which is compatible with the
formations. The second interval (10-5 Ma) matches with ages obtained from the graben fill, explained below.
the development of Fault II controlling the deposition of The graben fill is composed of four sedimentary units.
Sart formation in the hanging wall of Fault I. At the same The lowermost unit, the Hasköy formation (Sözbilir
time, Fault I was flexurally rotated and became a low- and Emre, 1990) contains the Eskihisar sporomorph
angle normal fault. This event was also documented by the association (20-14 Ma) (Seyitoğlu and Scott, 1992) and the
thermochronological data of Gessner et al. (2001) that the transition between the Hasköy and overlain Gökkırantepe
exhumation of the Alaşehir detachment accelerated since formations has been dated by magnetostratigraphy (15.97-
5 Ma. The third time interval (5-2 Ma) corresponds to the 14.88 Ma) (Şen and Seyitoğlu, 2009). The unconformably
development of Fault III, which causes further rotation and overlain Asartepe formation (Sözbilir and Emre, 1990)
shear on Fault I and II (Figure 3d). The activation on low has micromammalian fossils indicating a Late Pliocene-
- angle Fault I documented by the thermochronologic and Pleistocene age (Ünay et al., 1995; Sarıca, 2000). The
isotopic age data is the main difference from the original Quaternary deposits generally cover the plain. Our
rolling-hinge mechanism, thus the name “Alaşehir type compiled geological map at the north of Köşk (Figure 4)
- rolling hinge mechanism” was given (Seyitoğlu et al., demonstrates that the Hasköy formation unconformably
2014) (Figure 1c). The combination of geological mapping overlies the upper plate metamorphic rocks and shows a
of the Alaşehir Graben and the seismic reflection data also tectonic contact with the Büyük Menderes detachment
demonstrate that Fault II and III merge to Fault I, which fault (Fault I) (Figure 5) (see also Emre and Sözbilir 1997;
is another sign of the rolling hinge mechanism in the Çiftçi et al., 2011). The Asartepe formation accumulated
Alaşehir Graben (Figure 3e, 3f) (Demircioğlu et al., 2010). in the hanging wall of Fault II and Fault III controls the
Fault IV is not related to the rolling hinge mechanism, this deposition of the Quaternary deposits. Fault IV, however,
Quaternary - Recent, youngest generation of faulting can is the youngest fault that cuts earlier structures. Faults
be seen anywhere in the graben cutting the older structure I, II, and III controlling different units of the graben fill
(Seyitoğlu et al., 2002) (Figure 3g). get younger and steeper towards the south (Figure 6).
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- TÜRESİN and SEYİTOĞLU / Turkish J Earth Sci
d)
e)
f)
a)
b)
c)
g)
Figure 3. The Alaşehir type - rolling hinge mechanism demonstrating active rotated low - angle fault (after Seyitoğlu et al., 2002; 2014)
and a summary of datings in Alaşehir graben (after Seyitoğlu et al., 2014 and references therein). Seismic reflection data indicate
merging of Fault II and Fault III into Fault I (Alaşehir detachment) (after Demircioğlu et al., 2010).
327
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590000 95 C 14M41
4,4 +- 1,1
15M51 12,2 +- 0,7
Akçaköy
A
N 14M30 15,7 +- 2,8
19,9 +- 4,0 4,7 +- 0,6 Kızılca
25,7 +- 0,9 45 30
15M44
Başçayır 12
6,0 +- 1,0
3,5 +- 0,3
60 14,3 +- 1,5
30
Halköy T. 14M35
5,2 +- 2,0
3,0 +- 0,3
14M34
15,7 +- 3,6
4,8 +- 1,4
3,0 +- 0,3
Ilıdağ 30 15,5 +- 1,6
1040
4200000
647
4200000
Kuzdallığı T.
10Me18
22,3 +- 0,7
14M33
4,2 +- 2,1
T. Uzundere
079
Karatepe 14M31
17,8 +- 3,1
14M32 1,6 +- 0,2
4,2 +- 1,3 29,0 +- 1,9
25,3 +- 1,7 20,0 +- 1,6
14,5 +- 0,6
Kılınçada T. 10 18
20
Koçak 383
C`
35
35 Mezeköy B
Cumadere
İlyasdere
Aşağı Karatepe
95
Gümüş T. 24
Kızılcayer
95
655
207
23 Dede T.
14M40 Salavatlı
50
217
22,8 +- 5,8
Zıncak T.
0,5 +- 0,1
22
22
C``
8 33 14M39
7 386
27 Soğukçam T. 18,9 +- 4,2
21,0 +- 5,9
-
M20-a1 Kuyucular M20-a1
M20-a4 Baklaköy Yavuzyavlu M20-a4
A`
Beyköy B`
4190000
Ovaköy
4190000
KÖŞK
-201
LINE
LINE-209 Mender
Upper plate Quaternary
rocks
Lower plate
Asartepe Fm.
LINE-224
rocks
LINE-222
Gökkırantepe
Fm.
Hasköy Fm.
Faults
Normal
fault (Fault IV) fault
Büyük
Normal Menderes
fault (Fault III) detachment
fault (Fault I)
Normal
fault (Fault II)
85
Other symbols
85
Hamzabalı
Settlements
xxMxx Sample ID
Sample 17,8 +- 3,1 AFT
Y DALAMA Kırıklar 1,6 +- 0,2 AHe
29,0 +- 1,9 ZFT
20,0 +- 1,6Alanlı
ZHe
Dereköy 22,3 +- 0,7 K-Ar
Karahayıt
1 km
590000 95
Figure 4. The geological map of the Köşk area in the Büyük Menderes Graben (after Emre and Sözbilir, 1997; Göğüş, 2004; Nilius et al.,
2019). Isotopic/thermochronologic data from Hetzel et al. (2013); Wölfler et al. (2017); Nilius et al. (2019) (see also Table 1). Fault planes
and slickenlines are presented on the equal area lower hemisphere stereographical projection prepared by Faultkin software (Marret and
Allmendinger, 1990; Allmendinger et al., 2012).
328
- TÜRESİN and SEYİTOĞLU / Turkish J Earth Sci
Figure 5. a) The flexurally bended Büyük Menderes detachment in the SE of Eğrikavak (y: 89266 x: 99115, 203m). (1) Detachment
surface N20E, 17SE; (2) Detachment surface N45E, 30SE, (3) Fracture surface due to bending N20E, 50NW. b) Close up view of
the detachment surface. c) The relationship between the Büyük Menderes detachment and the Hasköy Formation in the NW of
Başçayır. (1) Bedding of Hasköy Fm N35W, 45NE. See Figure 4 for locations.
This relationship, very similar to that of the Alaşehir which is supported by the recently published isotopic /
Graben, presupposes that the Alaşehir type - rolling thermochronological data (see below).
hinge mechanism also works in the Büyük Menderes 4.1 Seismic reflection data
Graben (Figure 7). Particularly, the up - bulged position The N-S and E-W trending seismic reflection sections were
of Fault I is an indicator of activation on the initial fault prepared by the Turkish Petroleum Company (TPAO)
during the graben development (Figures 6, 7, and 8), (Figure 4). The longest N-S seismic reflection data, Line
329
- TÜRESİN and SEYİTOĞLU / Turkish J Earth Sci
SSW NNE
A` III II
10Me18
22,3 +- 0,7 Ia I A
500 m
250 m
1 km
Mender Faults
SSW NNE Upper plate
rocks
Quaternary Normal
fault (Fault IV)
14M39
B` III IV 18,9 +- 4,2
21,0 +- 5,9
B Lower plate
rocks
Asartepe Fm. Normal
fault (Fault III)
250 m Gökkırantepe Normal
Fm. fault (Fault II)
1 km
xxMxx Sample ID Hasköy Fm.
fault
17,8 +- 3,1 AFT
1,6 +- 0,2 AHe Büyük
29,0 +- 1,9 ZFT
Sample
Menderes
20,0 +- 1,6 ZHe detachment
22,3 +- 0,7 K-Ar fault (Fault I)
SE NW SSW 14M34 NNE
4,8 +- 1,4
C`` C` Karatepe IV 3,0 +- 0,3
15,5 +- 1,6 14M41 C
4,4 +- 1,1
12,2 +- 0,7
II IV 750 m
III 500 m
Salavatlı
1 km
Figure 6. The geological cross sections of the northern margin of the Büyük Menderes Graben. Isotopic/thermochronological data
from Hetzel et al. (2013); Wölfler et al. (2017); Nilius et al. (2019) indicating activity on the rotated low - angle Fault I. See Figure 4
for locations.
a)
b)
c)
Figure 7. A schematic, not to scale, evolutionary model demonstrating the relationship between faulting and sedimentary units in
the Büyük Menderes graben. The model represents mainly eastern part of the geological map in Figure 4, for the 3D Fault geometry
in the entire study area see Figure 8. The brown dash-dotted line indicates the approximate location of current topography. a) Early-
Middle Miocene - Late Miocene (?): The initial high - angle Fault I controls the accumulation of Hasköy (H) and Gökkırantepe (G)
formations. b) Pliocene: Fault II is responsible for the accumulation of Asartepe (A) formation. Fault I rotated to the low angle position.
c) Quaternary: Fault III is operational and control the accumulation of Quaternary deposits. Fault I gains up - bulged position. The
youngest Faults IV are not related to rolling hinge mechanism and chop - up earlier structures.
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I II III
Figure 8. Schematic 3D demonstration of the fault surfaces in the
northern margin of the Büyük Menderes graben around Köşk. The blue
surface represents the Büyük Menderes detachment (Fault I). The red
and green surfaces correspond to Faults II and III, respectively. Yellow
surface represents transfer fault.
- 222 is matched with the geological cross section A - A’ in the west of the study area represent the movement
and the position of Fault III is determined (Figure 9). on the Büyük Menderes detachment, providing ages
The listric nature of Fault III is clearly observed in the between 21.6 ± 0.6 Ma and 3.1 ± 0.1 Ma. Moreover, recent
seismic reflection line. There are two interesting areas in thermochronological ages have been published by Wölfler
the seismic reflection section marked with arrows where et al. (2017) and Nilius et al. (2019) from the footwall of the
strong reflections merge gently with each other (Figure 9). Büyük Menderes detachment. The results are in the range
They are interpreted as meeting points of major faults. The of 29.0 ± 1.9 Ma and 1.6 ± 0.2 Ma (Table). After selecting
northern one indicates the merging location of Faults I the sample locations in our study area that specifically fall
and II, whereas the southern one is the coalescent location on the footwall of Büyük Menderes detachment, we have
of Faults I and III (Figure 9). This feature is a typical noticed that they also yield the similar results indicating
expression of the rolling hinge mechanism seen also in the that Büyük Menderes detachment (Fault I) is active
Alaşehir Graben (Figure 3e, 3f) (Demircioğlu et al., 2000). after the formation of Fault II and III (Figure 13). These
In the N - S Line - 224, the position of Fault III is results strongly suggest that the Alaşehir type-rolling
determined by using the geological cross section. Its listric hinge mechanism is also working in the Büyük Menderes
nature and merging with other fault (possibly Fault I) are Graben and it is incompatible with the original rolling
seen in the seismic reflection section (Figure 10). hinge model assuming inactive rotated normal faults.
The E - W trending seismic lines, Line - 201 and - 209,
clearly show the existence of NW - SE trending oblique 5. Discussion
slip transfer fault and its synthetics that are recognized by Two implications of the Alaşehir type - rolling hinge
using relative displacements on the strong reflections of model can be mentioned. The first one is related to the
the Büyük Menderes detachment fault (Figures 11 and 12). core complex exhumation. As illustrated in Fossen (2010,
4.2 Isotopic and thermochronological data on the fig. 17.8), the classic rolling hinge mechanism requires
Büyük Menderes detachment erosional denudation to exhume the lower plate rocks
Isotopic dating of normal faults in the north of the Büyük (core complexes) due to the assumed inactive rotated
Menderes Graben provides K - Ar ages ranging from 22.3 first fault. On the other hand, the Alaşehir type - rolling
± 0.7 Ma to 3.1 ± 0.1 Ma (Hetzel et al., 2013). One sample hinge mechanism allows tectonic denudation and the
location is in the study area of this paper (Figure 4). A exhumation of core complexes is not entirely dependent
normal fault in the upper plate of the Büyük Menderes on the erosional denudation because active rotated first
detachment in the SE of Ilıdağ gives a 22.3 ± 0.1 Ma, fault and/or successive faults allow for exhumation of
indicating that this structure separates metamorphic greater amounts of lower plate rocks.
rocks and the Hasköy Formation in the north of Ilıdağ The second implication of the Alaşehir type - rolling
can be regarded as synthetics of the Büyük Menderes hinge mechanism is related to the regional geology of
detachment (Fault I). The other two samples located western Turkey. As seen in the geological setting section,
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- TÜRESİN and SEYİTOĞLU / Turkish J Earth Sci
LINE-222
Line 61 141 221 301 381 461 541 621 701
Trace
(ms)
-200
-400
-600
-800
-1000
-1200
-1400
-1600
-1800
a
-2000
Line 61 141 221 301 381 461 541 621 701
Trace
(ms) Normal fault (Fault II) N
-200
S
Normal fault (Fault III)
-400
-600
-800
-1000
-1200
Büyük Menderes
-1400 Detachment fault (Fault I)
-1600
-1800 1 km
b
-2000
SSW NNE
A` III II Ia I A
500 m
LINE-222 250 m
S N 1 km
1 km
Figure 9. Seismic reflection line - 222. a) uninterpreted b) interpreted versions. The lower part of the figure is the combination of
seismic line 222 and A - A’ geological cross section. See Figure 4 for locations. Black arrows indicate the merging points of the faults.
numerous tectonic models have been proposed for the Some studies claim that the first sedimentary unit of
graben formation. As such, there are significant conflicting the grabens accumulated in the N - S trending basins and
opinions in the literature regarding the identitiy of the they later became trapped in the E - W trending grabens
first sedimentary unit of the graben fills (i.e. Alaşehir (Yazman, 1997; Yılmaz et al., 2000; Yılmaz and Gelişli,
formation in Alaşehir Graben and Hasköy formation in 2003; Gürer et al., 2009). However, sedimentological
Büyük Menderes Graben) and the timing of the graben studies (i.e. Cohen et al., 1995; Çiftçi and Bozkurt, 2010)
formations. and the studies that used seismic reflections (Çiftçi and
332
- TÜRESİN and SEYİTOĞLU / Turkish J Earth Sci
LINE-224
Line 49 113 177 241 305 369 433 497 561 625
Trace
(ms)
-200
-400
-600
-800
-1000
-1200
-1400
-1600
-1800
a
-2000
Line 49 113 177 241 305 369 433 497 561 625
Trace
(ms) Normal fault (Fault III)
S N
-200
-400
-600
-800
-1000
-1200
-1400 Büyük Menderes
Detachment fault (Fault I)
-1600
-1800
1 km
b
-2000
SSW NNE
B` III IV B
LINE-224 250 m
S N 1 km
Büyük Menderes
Detachment fault (Fault I)
1 km
Figure 10. Seismic reflection line - 224. a) uninterpreted b) interpreted versions. The lower part of the figure is the combination of
seismic line 224 and B - B’ geological cross section. See Figure 4 for locations.
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Line
Trace 2714 2634 2555 2475 2395 2315
(ms)
-200
-400
-600
-800
-1000
-1200
-1400
-1600
-1800
a
-2000
Line 2714 2634 2555 2475 2395 2315
Trace
(ms)
Oblique slip fault
W E
-200
-400
-600
-800
-1000
-1200
-1400
-1600
-1800 Büyük Menderes
Detachment fault (Fault I) 1 km
b
-2000
Figure 11. Seismic reflection line - 201. a) uninterpreted b) interpreted versions. Oblique slip transfer fault is developed by the up-
bulged Büyük Menderes detachment fault. See Figure 4 for location.
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LINE-209
Line 561 481 401 321 241 181 81
Trace
(ms)
-200
-400
-600
-800
-1000
-1200
-1400
-1600
-1800
a
-2000
Line 561 481 401 321 241 181 81
Trace
(ms) Oblique slip fault
W E
-200
-400
-600
-800
-1000
-1200
-1400
-1600
-1800 Büyük Menderes
1 km
Detachment fault (Fault I)
b
-2000
Figure 12. Seismic reflection line - 209. a) uninterpreted b) interpreted versions. The synthetics of oblique slip transfer fault as seen in
Figure 10. See Figure 4 for location.
Bozkurt 2010; Demircioğlu et al., 2010; Çiftçi et al., 2011) explains their current structural position on the low-angle
agreed that the first sedimentary units show a wedge detachment faults (Figures 3 and 7).
geometry, which thickened towards the E-W trending Recently, a growing number of isotopic and
graben bounding faults, indicating a syn-tectonic nature. thermochronological data from the footwall of the Alaşehir
The Alaşehir type - rolling hinge mechanism successfully and Büyük Menderes Grabens provide a wide range of age
335
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Table. Termochronological data base from the Büyük Menderes graben in the study area.
SAMPLE NO latitude (N) WGS84 longitude (E) WGS84 Method Age (Ma) Error (±Ma) Reference
14M30 37,95530 28,04430 Zr U-Th/He 25,7 0,9 Wölfler et al. 2017
14M30 37,95530 28,04430 AFT 19,9 4 Wölfler et al. 2017
14M31 37,92270 28,08610 Zr U-Th/He 20,0 1,6 Wölfler et al. 2017
14M31 37,92270 28,08610 AFT 17,8 3,1 Wölfler et al. 2017
14M31 37,92270 28,08610 ZFT 29,0 1,9 Wölfler et al. 2017
14M31 37,92270 28,08610 Ap U-Th/He 1,6 0,2 Wölfler et al. 2017
14M32 37,92410 28,08640 Zr U-Th/He 14,5 0,6 Wölfler et al. 2017
14M32 37,92410 28,08640 AFT 4,2 1,3 Wölfler et al. 2017
14M32 37,92410 28,08640 ZFT 25,3 1,7 Wölfler et al. 2017
14M33 37,93100 28,08760 AFT 4,2 2,1 Wölfler et al. 2017
14M34 37,93870 28,08840 Zr U-Th/He 15,5 1,6 Wölfler et al. 2017
14M34 37,93870 28,08840 AFT 4,8 1,4 Wölfler et al. 2017
14M34 37,93870 28,08840 Ap U-Th/He 3,0 0,3 Wölfler et al. 2017
14M35 37,95370 28,10340 Zr U-Th/He 15,7 3,6 Wölfler et al. 2017
14M35 37,95370 28,10340 AFT 5,2 2 Wölfler et al. 2017
14M35 37,95370 28,10340 Ap U-Th/He 3,0 0,3 Wölfler et al. 2017
14M39 37,88460 28,06300 Zr U-Th/He 21,0 5,9 Wölfler et al. 2017
14M39 37,88460 28,06300 AFT 18,9 4,2 Wölfler et al. 2017
14M40 37,88620 28,04760 AFT 22,8 5,8 Wölfler et al. 2017
14M40 37,88620 28,04760 Ap U-Th/He 0,5 0,1 Wölfler et al. 2017
14M41 37,96820 28,08990 Zr U-Th/He 12,2 0,7 Wölfler et al. 2017
14M41 37,96820 28,08990 AFT 4,4 1,1 Wölfler et al.2017
15M44 37,96619 28,11728 AFT 6,0 1 Nilius et al. 2019
15M44 37,96619 28,11728 Ap U-Th/He 3,5 0,3 Nilius et al. 2019
15M44 37,96619 28,11728 Zr U-Th/He 14,3 1,5 Nilius et al. 2019
15M51 37,96117 28,08538 AFT 15,7 2,8 Nilius et al. 2019
15M51 37,96117 28,08538 Ap U-Th/He 4,7 0,6 Nilius et al. 2019
10Me18 37,93965 28,05240 K-Ar 22,3 0,7 Hetzel et al. 2013
data (see references in Seyitoğlu et al., 2014 and Wölfler et al., 2017; Nilius et al., 2019) are perfectly compatible with
al., 2017; Nilius et al., 2019; Table 1). The graben formation the Alaşehir type - rolling hinge mechanism explaining
is thought to have formed at a young age because of the evolutionary formation of the Büyük Menderes Graben
scattered age data obtained from metamorphic rocks (i.e. (Figure 7). However, there is possibly no need to introduce
Pliocene - Quaternary, Gürer et al., 2009). a new structure, such as the Demirhan detachment (Nilius
In fact, all the published isotopic and et al., 2019), which can be evaluated as an up-bulged
thermochronological data fits well with the Alaşehir type portion of the Büyük Menderes detachment (Fault I)
- rolling hinge mechanism (Seyitoğlu et al., 2014 and (Figures 7 and 8).
this paper). Particularly, the K - Ar dates of the samples
(10Me09: 9.2 ± 0.3 Ma and 10Me10: 3.7 ± 0.2 Ma; Hetzel 6. Conclusion
et al., 2013) comes from the exact same location where The field observations on the southern margin of the
the low - angle fault activation is recognized in the field Alaşehir Graben demonstrate that normal faults are getting
(Seyitoğlu et al., 2002; fig. 11). Moreover, the Early Middle younger towards the north and the graben bounding
Miocene slower exhumation rates (Nilius et al., 2019) and normal fault acting as an Alaşehir detachment (low - angle
Late Miocene - Pliocene high exhumation rates (Wölfler et normal faulting - Fault I) has the sign of activation after
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- TÜRESİN and SEYİTOĞLU / Turkish J Earth Sci
37.88 37.89 37.90 37.91 37.92 37.93 37.94 37.95 37.96 37.97 37.98
0.0
14M40
14M31
14M34 14M35
15M44
14M32 14M33
5.0 14M34 15M51 14M41
14M35
15M44
10.0
14M41 AFT
ZFT
Age (Ma)
14M32 15M44 AHe
15.0
14M34 14M35 15M51 ZHe
K-Ar
14M31
14M39
20.0 14M31 14M30
14M39
10Me18
14M40
25.0 14M32 14M30
14M31
30.0
Figure 13. Isotopic / thermochronological data obtained from the footwall of Büyük Menderes detachment in the study area (Hetzel
et al., 2013; Wölfler et al., 2017; Nilius et al., 2019) show the three different time intervals for the age of Büyük Menderes detachment
(Fault I) which can be explained by Alaşehir - type rolling hinge mechanism.
forming high - angle faulting in its hanging wall (Fault Menderes massif (Seyitoğlu et al., 2004; Seyitoğlu and
II) (Seyitoğlu et al., 2002). This feature of active rotated Işık, 2015). This also explains different movements of the
normal fault is different from the original rolling hinge Lycian nappes, formation of the Oligocene sedimentary
mechanism (Buck, 1988; Wernicke and Axen, 1988) and basins in SW Turkey and the overall dominant top to
the name “Alaşehir type - rolling hinge mechanism” given the north-northeast sense of shearing along the entire
to express this difference (Seyitoğlu et al., 2014). Menderes massif.
The basinward younging normal faults, the gently
merging Fault II and III to the Fault I were observed in Acknowledgments
seismic reflection sections; recently published isotopic This paper is part of an MSc thesis completed at Ankara
/ thermochronological data having wide time range and University, in the Tectonics Research Group. We thank
field observations demonstrate that the Alaşehir type - the Turkish Petroleum Company for the field support and
rolling hinge mechanism is also applicable to the Büyük for the permission to access and publish the subsurface
Menderes Graben. data. We are grateful to Murat Tamer for evaluation of
The footwall and hanging wall age data indicate that earlier version of the manuscript and to the referees for
the Alaşehir-type rolling hinge mechanism can explain their constructive comments that greatly improved the
Alaşehir and Büyük Menderes Graben formations and submitted version. We especially thank to the anonymous
symmetrical exhumation of the central Menderes core subject editor for perfect reviewer choice and careful
complex after the asymmetrical exhumation of the entire editorial handling.
337
- TÜRESİN and SEYİTOĞLU / Turkish J Earth Sci
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