Sensors and Methods for Autonomous Mobile Robot Positioning

The University of Michigan Volume III: "Where am I?" Sensors and Methods for Autonomous Mobile Robot Positioning by L. Feng1, J. Borenstein2, and H. R. Everett3 Edited and compiled by J. Borenstein December 1994 Copies of this report are available from the University of Michigan as: Technical Report UM-MEAM-94-21 Prepared by the University of Michigan For the Oak Ridge National Lab (ORNL) D&D Program and the United States Department of Energy`s Robotics Technology Development Program Within the Environmental Restoration, Decontamination and Dismantlement Project 1) Dr. Liqiang Feng The University of Michigan Department of Mechanical Engineering and Applied Me-chanics Mobile Robotics Laboratory 1101 Beal Avenue Ann Arbor, MI 48109 Ph.: (313) 936-9362 Fax: (313) 763-1260 Email: Feng@engin.umich.edu 2) Dr. Johann Borenstein The University of Michigan Department of Mechanical Engineering and Applied Me-chanics Mobile Robotics Laboratory 1101 Beal Avenue Ann Arbor, MI 48109 Ph.: (313) 763-1560 Fax: (313) 944-1113 Email: Johann_Borenstein@um.cc.umich.edu 3) Commander H. R. Everett Naval Command, Control, and Ocean Surveillance Center RDT&E Division 5303 271 Catalina Boulevard San Diego CA 92152-5001 Ph.: (619) 553-3672 Fax: (619) 553-6188 Email: Everett@NOSC.MIL Please direct all inquiries to Johann Borenstein D:\WP\DOE_94\ORNL\POSITION.RPT\POSITION.WP6, February 25, 1995 This page intentionally left blank. Acknowledgments: This work was done under the direction and on behalf of the Department of Energy Robotics Technology Development Program Within the Environmental Restoration, Decontamination, and Dismantlement Project. Parts of this report were adapted from: H. R. Everett, "Sensors for Mobile Robots." A. K. Peters, Ltd., Wellesley, expected publication date Spring 1995. The authors wish to thank Professors David K. Wehe and Yoram Koren for their support in preparing this report. The authors also wish to thank Dr. William R. Hamel, D&D Technical Coordinator and Dr. Linton W. Yarbrough, DOE Program Manager, for their continuing support in funding this report. The authors further wish to thank A. K. Peters, Ltd., for granting permission to publish (for limited distribution within Oak Ridge National Laboratories and the Department of Energy) selected parts of their soon-to-be published book "Sensors for Mobile Robots" by H. R. Everett. Thanks are also due to Todd Ashley Everett for making most of the line-art drawings, and to Photographer David A. Kother who shot most of the artful photographs on the front cover of this report. Last but not least, the authors are grateful to Mr. Brad Holt for proof-reading the manuscript and providing many useful suggestions. i Table of Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1 Part I: Sensors for Mobile Robot Positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5 Chapter 1: Sensors for Dead Reckoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 7 1.1 Optical Encoders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 8 1.1.1 Incremental Optical Encoders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 8 1.1.2 Absolute Optical Encoders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 10 1.2 Doppler Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 12 1.2.1 Micro-Trak Trak-Star Ultrasonic Speed Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 13 1.2.2 Other Doppler Effect Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 13 1.3 Typical Mobility Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 14 1.3.1 Differential Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 14 1.3.2 Tricycle Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 15 1.3.3 Ackerman Steering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 16 1.3.4 Synchro-Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 17 1.3.5 Omni-Directional Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 20 1.3.6 Multi-Degree-of Freedom Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 21 1.3.7 Tracked Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 22 Chapter 2: Heading Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 24 2.1 Gyroscopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 24 2.1.1 Mechanical Gyroscopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 24 2.1.1.1 Space-Stable Gyroscopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 25 2.1.1.2 Gyrocompasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 26 2.1.2 Optical Gyroscopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 27 2.1.2.1 Active Ring Laser Gyros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 28 2.1.2.2 Passive Ring Resonator Gyros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 31 2.1.2.3 Open-Loop Interferometric Fiber Optic Gyros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 32 2.1.2.4 Closed-Loop Interferometric Fiber Optic Gyros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 35 2.1.2.5 Resonant Fiber Optic Gyros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 35 2.2 Geomagnetic Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 36 2.2.1 Mechanical Magnetic Compasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 37 Dinsmore Starguide Magnetic Compass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 38 2.2.2 Fluxgate Compasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 39 2.2.2.1 Zemco Fluxgate Compasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 43 2.2.2.2 Watson Gyro Compass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 45 2.2.2.3 KVH Fluxgate Compasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 46 2.2.3 Hall Effect Compasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 47 2.2.4 Magnetoresistive Compasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 49 ii 2.2.4.1 Philips AMR Compass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 49 2.2.5 Magnetoelastic Compasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 50 Chapter 3: Active Beacons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 53 3.1 Navstar Global Positioning System (GPS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 53 3.2 Ground-Based RF Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 60 3.2.1 Loran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 60 3.2.2 Kaman Sciences Radio Frequency Navigation Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 61 3.2.3 Precision Location Tracking and Telemetry System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 62 3.2.4 Motorola Mini-Ranger Falcon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 62 3.2.5 Harris Infogeometric System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 64 Chapter 4: Sensors for Map-based Positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 66 4.1 Time-of-Flight Range Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 66 4.1.1 Ultrasonic TOF Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 68 4.1.1.1 National Semiconductor’s LM1812 Ultrasonic Transceiver . . . . . . . . . Page 68 4.1.1.2 Massa Products Ultrasonic Ranging Module Subsystems . . . . . . . . . . . Page 69 4.1.1.3 Polaroid Ultrasonic Ranging Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 71 4.1.2 Laser-Based TOF Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 73 4.1.2.1 Schwartz Electro-Optics Laser Rangefinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 73 4.1.2.2 RIEGL Laser Measurement Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 77 4.2 Phase Shift Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 82 4.2.1 ERIM 3-D Vision Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 86 4.2.2 Odetics Scanning Laser Imaging System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 89 4.2.3 ESP Optical Ranging System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 90 4.2.4 Acuity Research AccuRange 3000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 91 4.2.5 TRC Light Direction and Ranging System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 92 4.3 Frequency Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 94 4.3.1 VRSS Automotive Collision Avoidance Radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 95 4.3.2 VORAD Vehicle Detection and Driver Alert System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 96 4.3.3 Safety First Systems Vehicular Obstacle Detection and Warning System . . . Page 98 4.3.4 Millitech Millimeter Wave Radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 98 Part II: Systems and Methods for Mobile Robot Positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 100 Chapter 5: Dead-reckoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 102 5.1 Systematic and Non-systematic Dead-reckoning Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 103 5.2 Reduction of Dead-reckoning Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 104 5.2.1 Auxiliary Wheels and Basic Encoder Trailer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 105 5.2.2 The Basic Encoder Trailer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 105 5.2.3 Mutual Referencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 106 5.2.4 MDOF vehicle with Compliant Linkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 106 5.2.5 Internal Position Error Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 107 iii ... - tailieumienphi.vn