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- Lecture 14. Recognizing argumentation:
Basic notions,
Forms and ways of analysis,
Non-argumentative elements
1
Purposes of argumentation
0. • Attempts to convince others –
0. – setting up an argumentation of your
own;
1. – criticizing somebody’s argumentation
1. • Solving disputes
• • Analyze other people’s argumentation and
account for you decisions
2
Logic in Writing
What logic in NOT:
0. • An absolute law which governs the Universe
1. • A set of rules which govern human behavior
You must decide whether logic is the right tool for the job. If not, discuss
and debate
Settling Solving
a dispute ==a dispute
- 3
To Argue = try to prove that a statement is
correct by means of one or more other
statements
An Argumentation is a combination of
statements of which one (opinion or
conclusion) is supported by one or more other
statements
4
Opinion
Statement argument
(Neutral)
not argumentation
5
- Opinion or conclusion is a view of reality that is
not shared by everyone and may be disputed
Argument or premise is a statement which is
offered in support of the opinion/conclusion
Opinion and argument can be either true or
false
6
By arguing one admits:
- there is a disagreement (a dispute), or it may occur;
- the partner is a person who can be convinced by
means of arguments
7
Two types of dispute:
- the statement is doubted and the author of the opinion
gives arguments to support it.
- the person not only casts doubt but sets his own
opinion against it.
***
A: I think it is beginning to get more difficult for
University IBA graduates to get job.
B: Why?
A: Well, in the past few years there has been an
- explosion of IBA graduates.
***
A: I think it is beginning to get more difficult for
University IBA graduates to get job.
B: In my opinion, it is getting easier.
A: Where did you get this idea from?
B: Well, the demand for IBA graduates is increasing
because everyone knows by now what to expect from
an IBA graduate.
8
An argumentation is a connected series of statements
(arguments/ premises) to establish a definite
proposition (opinion).
Once the premises have been agreed, the argument
proceeds via a step-by-step process called inference.
9
Example of an argumentation
0. • Premise: ‘Every event has a cause.’
1. • Premise: ‘The universe has a beginning.’
2. • Premise: ‘All beginnings involve an
event.’
3. • Inference: ‘This implies that the
beginning of the universe involved an event.’
4. • Inference: ‘Therefore the beginning of
the universe had a cause.’
5. • Conclusion: ‘The universe had a cause.’
10
Two types of argumentation
- deductive inductive
Deductive arguments move from general
statements (called premises) to specific
conclusions:
All men are mortal.
Socrates is a man.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
Can be valid (meaning they hold true) or
invalid (not hold true).
Inductive arguments begin with specific
observations, data, or details, from which derive
generalized conclusions:
Yesterday I saw three black bears near my house.
Today I saw three black bears near my house.
Therefore, tomorrow it is likely I’ll see three black bears
near my house.
Can be valid (meaning they hold true) or invalid (not
hold true).
11
Simple argumentation:
He probably earns quite a lot of money, because
he owns an advertising agency
Multiple argumentation:
He probably earns quite a lot of money, because
he owns an advertising agency. Besides he is a
senior lecturer.
- Subordinate argumentation:
He probably earns quite a lot of money, because
he is a senior lecturer. I attended one of his
lectures in London.
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Decimal notation system
1. He probably earns quite a lot of money,
1.1 Because he owns an advertising agency.
1.2 Besides he is a senior lecturer.
1.2.1 I attended one of his lectures in London.
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Graphic notation system
1.He … money,
1.1 because 1.2 Besides
… agency. …lecturer.
1.2.1 I …in London.
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Simple argumentation
0. • John will probably drop out of the course,
(opinion)
- 1. •He hasn’t done a thing. (argument)
********
Surely Becker must be able to beat Agassi
(opinion).
Agassi was defeated in the semi-finals by Chang
last Sunday. And everyone remembers that only
three weeks ago Becker beated Chang hollow.
(argument)
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Multiple argumentation
6. • John will probably drop out of the course,
(opinion)
7. • He hasn’t done a thing, (argument)
8. • His first-semester marks were insufficient,
(argument)
9. • And he has cut at least half of the classes,
(argument)
16
Subordinate argumentation
I always buy branded clothes. (1.) After all,
you get value for money (1.1), because
branded clothes keep their shape longer than
an obscure brand (1.1.1). For example, look
at this Portobello sweater of mine: I have
had it for four years and it is still beautiful.
Another sweater that had been worn as often
- as this would have been worn out by now
(1.1.1.1)
17
Analysis: for/so test
2. • To determine support relations:
I quit,
I have done enough for one day.
Opinion, for argument
argument, so Opinion
Most dog owners are highhanded people: they
enjoy giving orders
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Signals
0. • Signals of opinions
1. • Signals of arguments
2. • Signals of multiple and subordinate
argumentation
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Signals of opinion
- MACRO SIGNALS MICRO SIGNALS
I will first outline the facts, It follows that…
and then draw a We may conclude from
conclusion. this that…
This leads to the following That is why…
conclusion… So,…
These arguments justify Contrary to what A has
the conclusion that … said…
According to me…
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Signals of argument and subordinate
argumentation
MACRO SIGNALS MICRO SIGNALS
I have three arguments for Some arguments for this
this, the first of which is are…
… This follows from…
The conclusion is based on This conclusion is justified
four arguments. by …
I have demonstrated in For…
succession… Because…
As…
After all…; colon
21
Signals of multiple argumentation
- MICRO SIGNALS
Besides…/ Furthermore …
Also…
Apart from that …
All the more since/ because…
All the more reason for/ to …
Another
What is even more important…
22
Complications: variants of the basic form
10. • John will probably drop out of the course, for
he hasn’t done a thing.
11. • John will probably drop out of the course, for
if you don’t do a thing, you are bound to drop out of
the course.
12. • John hasn’t done a thing, and we both know
that if you don’t do a thing, you are bound to drop out
of the course.
23
Complete underlying argumentation
John will probably drop out of the course,
for he hasn’t done a thing.
if you don’t do a thing, you are bound to drop out of the
course.
Variants:
1. John will probably drop out of the course,
for he hasn’t done a thing.
[if you don’t do a thing, you are bound to drop out of the
course.]
***
2. John will probably drop out of the course,
- for if you don’t do a thing, you are bound to drop out of the
course.
[John hasn’t done a thing.]
***
3. John hasn’t done a thing,
And we both know that if you don’t do a thing, you are
bound to drop out of the course.
[John will probably drop out of the course.]
24
Condensed argumentation
3. • You, a seventeen-year-old, are not yet
allowed to vote.
You are not allowed to vote, (1.)
For you are not eighteen yet (1.1)
25
Implicit elements in argumentation
3. • A cold front was forecast for Christmas, so
I think I will go round to the bank after all.
4. At a dress hire shop:
•
Shop assistant: Where will the ceremony take
place?
A Ph.D. Student: In Leiden.
Shop assistant: So you will need a black waistcoat.
A Ph.D. Student: ???????????
26
- Masked argumentation
13. • (at dinner) Do use your napkin! Or would
you rather go on spilling food all over your shirt?
14. • (at an illegal consult during a written
exam) Gentlemen, would you please take care?
Or would you prefer my taking receipt o your
sheets now?
15. • Knowledge is power! Why don’t you
attend a written course?
How to check:
1. 1. Rephrase
2. 2. Apply the for/so test
16. • You should use your napkin, for if you
don’t you will go on spilling food all over your
shirt.
17. • Gentlemen, you must take care, for if you
don’t I will take receipt o your sheets now.
• • Knowledge is power! So you should attend a
written course.
27
Non-argumentative elements
4. • Redundancy
5. • Digressions or asides
6. • Concessions
2. – In spite of the fact that all the players
gave it all they got, the Dutch team deservedly
lost the football match (opinion): the Germans
simply were the better team (argument)
- 28
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