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- Networks and Telecommunications: Design and Operation, Second Edition.
Martin P. Clark
Copyright © 1991, 1997 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
ISBNs: 0-471-97346-7 (Hardback); 0-470-84158-3 (Electronic)
Introduction to Signal Transmission
and the Basic Line Circuit
To make it suitable for carriage over most telecommunications networks, information must first
be encoded in an electrical manner, as anelectrical signal. Only such signalscan be conveyed over
the wires and exchanges that comprise ‘transport
the mechanism’ of telecommunications
networks.Overtheyears,avarietyofdifferentmethodshave been developed forencoding
different types of information. This chaptercategorizes all methods of information transmission
intoone oftwobasictypes,analoguetransmissionanddigitaltransmission,describingthe
principles of both types but concentrating on the technique of analogue transmission. Chapter3
continues the subject of analogue transmission, explaining its use for information conveyance
over long distances, and Chapters 4 and 5 expand the details of digital transmission.
2.1 ANALOGUE AND DIGITAL TRANSMISSION
The simplest type of physical medium (transport mechanism) used in telecommunica-
tions networks is a pair of electrical wires. These allow the conveyance of an electrical
current or signal from a transmitter at one end of the wires to the receiver at the
other end.
There are two basic methods for information encoding which may be applied by the
transmitteranddecoded by the receiver. These areanalogue signal encoding and
transmission, and digital encoding and transmission.
As the name suggests, analogue signal encodinginvolves the creation of an electrical
signal waveform which is analogous to the waveform of the original information (e.g. a
speech wave pattern). Inthis way the electrical signal is similar in shape to thespeech or
other information waveform that it represents. Analogue transmission lines are used to
convey analogue encoded signals and, until the early 1980s, predominated as the links
of the world’s telecommunications networks. Analogue excllunges have provided the
nodalinterconnections between these links. Digital encoding and transmission of
information (a technique in which information is conveyed as a string of digits, or more
17
- 18 INTRODUCTION
SIGNAL
TO
TRANSITION AND THE BASIC CIRCUIT
LINE
Electrical I
( aT y p i c a l n a l o g u s i g n a l
) a e
Electrical
current
I
( b ) T y p i c ad i g i t as i g n a l
l l
Figure 2.1 Typical analogue and digital systems
precisely, pulses of ‘on’ and ‘off electrical current) is rapidly taking over as the main
method of telecommunications transmission. This is because of the significant benefits
that digital transmission offers, in terms of performance and cost. Figure2.1 illustrates
typical analogue and digital signal waveforms.
As for the transmission line systems themselves, Table 2.1 presents a short summary
of some of the physical mediawhich may be used,and compares theirrelative merits. In
general any physical medium may be designed to work in either analogue or digital
mode, and each of the different transmission media listed in Table 2.1 has been used as
the basis of both analogue anddigital transmission systems, though digital systems tend
today to be the system of choice. Choosing exactly which medium and encoding system
should be used is a decision for the network planner, who needs to consider the relative
costs and the ease with which any new type of line system could be incorporated into
the existing network. We shall discuss the relative benefits of different transmission
media in more detail in Chapter 8.
Switchingequipment and exchanges arealso classified into analogue and digital
types. A switch, is after all, only a specialized and very flexible form of transmission
equipment.
To develop our understanding of information encoding, we now discuss the various
techniques in chronological order.
- TELEGRAPHY 19
Table 2.1 Comparison of common transmission media
Transmission medium used
Comments of line
assystem
basis
Copper wire Ordinary wire. The gauge (or thickness) will be carefully selected for the
(or aluminium wire) particular use. The pairsof wires may be either ‘parallel’ or ‘twisted’ within the
‘cable’, which usually comprises many pairs. Copper and aluminium is the
wire
predominant system used for the ‘local loop network’.
Coaxial cable Centre conductor plus cylindrical conducting sheath. Used on long-haul or
‘trunk’ systems. Particularly used to carry many tens of hundreds of
communications channels simultaneously; in ‘multiplexed mode’ (described
later).
Microwave radio Small dish, ‘line-of-sight’ radio system. Used for long-haul ‘trunks’,
particularly where terrain is difficult for cable laying.
Tropospheric scatter Radio system using high power to achieve ‘over the horizon’ communication.
100-600 km but susceptible to fading.
High-frequency radio Used historically for ship-to-shore communications. Now increasingly used by
(HF, VHF and UHF) the flourishing mobile cellular radio networksof portable telephone handsets.
Satellite Satellites are generally intended to be ‘geostationary’ (permanently above a
particular point on the equator). They give a single hop access to
approximately one third of the globe. The disadvantage is the comparatively
long half-second transmission time.
Optical fibre Glass fibre, of a thickness comparable with a human hair. Used conjunction
in
with lasers, optical fibres are capable of the carriage of thousands of
simultaneous calls.
2.2 TELEGRAPHY
Electric telegraphy was the earliest common method of digital transmission. It began in
the early part of the 19th century, and became the forerunner of modern telecom-
munications. Samuel Morse, inventor of the Morse code, developed a working telegraph
system in 1835. By 1837 a practical system was established from Euston railway station
in London to Camden, a mile away. The system came about through the desire of
railway signalmen to ensure the safety of trains, the number of which was rapidly
growing as a result of the industrial revolution. In 1865 Morse code was accepted asa
world standard during the first International Telegraph convention, and this gave birth
t o t h eInternational Telecommunications Union ( I T U ) . Public interest in telegraphy grew
rapidly until about 1880, when telephones became more widely available.
Telegraphy formed the basis of the early telegram service. It provided the means of
sending short textual messages between post offices so that immediate delivery could
then be arranged by the ‘telegram boy’ carrying it by cycle to the recipient’s premises.
A simple telegraphcircuit illustrated Figure
is in 2.2. The systemworks by
transmitting simple on/off electrical pulses from the transmitter (the key) to the receiver
- 20 INTRODUCTION TO SIGNAL TRANSITION AND THE BASIC LINE CIRCUIT
I
Transmitter Line I Receiver
I I
I
Battery I
Figure 2.2 A simple telegraph circuit
(the lamp). A single pair of wires provides the transmission medium for the electrical
current between origin and destination.
In the early days, telegraphy was carried out by manual keying (switching the circuit
‘on’ and ‘off’) according to the Morse code. The code split the message up into its
component alphabetic characters,each of which is represented by a unique sequenceof
short or longelectrical pulses (so-called dots and dashes). For those readers not familiar
with the code it is described more fully in Chapter 4.
Dots and dashes are sent by pressing the key of Figure 2.2 for an appropriate length
of time. Consecutive dots or dashes are separated by a space (a period of no current -
key not pressed) equal in length to one dot. Three successive spaces are used to separate
the sequences of dots and dasheswhich together represent a single character. Words are
separated by five spaces.
As telegraph networks were gradually replaced by telex networks, which essentially
are no more than automatic telegraph networks, so the Morse code was superseded
by the Murray code, another digital code, but one which was especially designed for
automatic working. Itdiffers from the Morse codein that every alphabetic and numeric
character is represented by a fixed number (five) of electrical pulses, so-called marks, or
spaces. Unlike the dots and dashes of the Morse code, the marks and spaces of the
Murray code areall of equal length. The code more suitable for automatic working as
is
it is easier to design mechanical equipment to respond to pulses (either marks orspaces)
which have a predetermined duration. For example, a telex receiver or teleprinter can
more easily select and print characters at fixed speed than it can ata variable one. The
a
evolution from the Morse to the Murray code took place in a number of stages, first to
a manual and then an automatic teleprinter system, finally to the Telex system. The
output of theearly teleprinter devices was a narrow strip of paper which could be stuck
onto a receiving Telegram form. The Telex system by contrast prints direct onto a roll
of ordinary paper. Only in the late 1980s did facsimile machines start to supersede telex
as a widespread means of text communication.
- TELEPHONY 21
In both telegraph and telex networks, two-way sequential transmission over a single
pair of wires is possible simply by providing a device capable of both the transmitting
and the receiving functions at both ends of the line.
2.3 TELEPHONY
Telephony, invented by Alexander Graham Bell and patented in the USA in 1875-7 is
perhaps today’s most important means of long distance communication. Certainly in
terms of overall volume of information carried, itis far andaway the most importantof
the long distance telecommunications methods, though lately starting to be overtaken
by the explosion in information carried by computer networks.
Telephony is the transmission of sound, in particular, speech, to a distant place. The
literal translation of ‘tele-phone’ from the Greek means ‘long distance-voice’.
Telephony is achieved by conversion of the sound waves of a speaker’s voice into an
us
equivalent electrical signal wave. Let consider the characteristics ofsound, so that we
may understand how this conversion is performed. Sound is really only vibrations in
the air around us, caused by localized pockets of high and low air pressure which have
been generated by some form of mechanical vibration, for example an object hitting
another, or the vibration of the human vocal chords during speech.
Sound waves in the airaround us cause objects in the vicinity vibrate in sympathy.
to
The human ear detects sound by the use of a very sensitive diaphragm, which vibrates in
synchronism with the sound hitting it.
The pitch of a sound (how ‘high’ or ‘low’ it sounds) depends on thefrequency of the
sound vibration. A typical range of frequencies which are audible to the human ear are
20-20 000 Hz (or vibrations per second). Low frequencies are heard as low notes, high
frequencies as high notes, and most sound is a very complex mixture of frequencies as
is of
Figure 2.3 illustrates. Figure 2.3(a) a ‘pure’ tone a single frequency. a listener this
To
High air
pressure
t
Meon air
pressure
4
Low oir
pressure
/
Figure 2.3 (Top) Waveform of ‘pure’(single frequency) tone. (Bottom) Typical
speech waveform
- 22 INTRODUCTION
SIGNAL
TO
TRANSITION AND THE BASIC CIRCUIT
LINE
Microphone
Battery fT
Telephone line
( pair of wires 1
;D Earphone
Figure 2.4 A simpletelephonecircuit
is the rather dull andinsipid note produced by a tuning fork. By contrast, Figure 2.3(b)
shows the waveform of the vowel ‘o’, as in ‘hope’. Note how the waveform is not as
smooth as before. Inreality the waveform will be even more complicated, preceded and
followed by other complicated patterns making up the sounds of the rest of the word.
Real sounds have an irregular and spiky waveform.
Concert grade musical performances use a wide range (or bandwidth) of frequencies
within the human aural range. However, for the purpose of intelligible speech, only the
frequencies from 300-3400Hz are necessary. If only this bandwidth of frequencies is
received thequality is slightlydowngradedbut is stillentirelycomprehensible and
acceptable to most listeners.
So how can the sound waveform be converted into an electrical signal? Figure 2.4
illustrates a simple telephone circuit capable of the conversion. It consists of a micro-
phone, a battery, a telephone line and an earphone.
When no-one speaks into the microphone, then both the microphone and earphone
have a steady electrical resistance, and so a constant electrical current flows around the
circuit according to Ohm’s law (current = voltage divided by resistance). If someone
speaks into the microphone, then the sound waves hitting the microphone diaphragm
cause the electrical resistance of the device to alter slightly. The change in resistance
results in a corresponding change in the circuit current. To illustrate this, Figure 2.5
shows the circuit components in more detail. On the left of the diagram is a carbon
microphone, common in many countries. The diaphragm of the microphone compacts
or rarefacts the carbon granules, and this results in the change of resistance. The change
in resistance causes a change in the currentaround the circuit. The current varies about
Iron
-_- - - - - - diaphragm
Electrical current Recreated
Soundwave waveform soundwave
---------
Carbon
granules
Microphone Lino Earphone
Figure 2.5 The carriage of a soundwave over a simple telephone circuit
- D STRENGTH,
SJDETONE RECEIVED
SIGNAL 23
the steady-state value in the sameway that the airpressure in the sound wave fluctuates
about its averagepressure. The effect is to create an electrical signal fluctuatingin
almost the same way as the original sound wave.
Conversely, in the earphone the electrical signal is reconverted to sound. The simple
earphone shown in Figure 2.5 is constructed from an iron diaphragm and an electro-
magnet. An electromagnet is an electrical device which acts like a magnet when current
passes through its winding and tends to attract the iron diaphragm accordingly. The
of
strength of the attraction depends on the magnitude the current flowing in the coil of
the electromagnet (i.e. on the telephone circuit current). The varying electrical signal
created by the microphone results in a varying force of attraction on the diaphragm.
This vibrates the surrounding air and recreates the original soundwave.
The conversion process described above is an analogue one, the as electrical
waveformcarried through the analogue network is analogous to theoriginalsound
waveform.
2.4 RECEIVED SIGNAL STRENGTH, SIDETONEAND ECHO
In an analogue network, it is important that the received electrical signal strength is
sufficient to reproduce soundwaves loud enough for the listener to hear. Herein lies a
problem with thecircuit of Figure 2.5. The circuitworksadequately at short line
lengths, but if too long a line were to be used, then because the electrical resistance of
the microphone would be substantially smaller than the resistance of the line itself, the
microphone would not be able to stimulate muchfluctuation in the circuit current. The
result is faint sound reproduction. To get around this problem, the circuit is improved
by the use of transformers, as shown in Figure 2.6. The greater number of turns on the
secondarywinding of eachtransformer(ascomparedwiththeprimarywinding)
reduces the effect of the line resistance.
You will also notice in Figure 2.6, that the circuit connects the equivalent of two
complete telephone handsets (i.e. it contains two microphones and two earphones). The
circuit is therefore capable of two-way communication.
A real telephone circuit
normally uses amore complicated circuit. Theadded
complication is needed to control the effect of sidetone and reduce the chance of echo.
Consider the following example in explanation of these effects. As party A speaks, the
voice will be heard in earphone B, but also in earphone A. The speaker will therefore
hear sidetone of his or her own voice. If the sidetone is too loud, the speaker may
bedistracted.Conversely, if there is no sidetone,thespeakersometimes gets the
impression that the phone is ‘dead’. A n anti-sidetone circuit is normally incorporated
into the telephone circuitry to control the level of sidetone. It does so by restricting the
volume of speech and other noises picked up by the microphone from being heard in
the speaker’s own earphone. The anti-sidetone circuit also eases the difficulty of hearing
weak incoming signals in noisy places (e.g. a public telephone in acafe). The circuit has
the further benefit that it controls the undesirableeffect of echo. Consider again speaker
A’s position. The voice is emitted by earphone B, and if too loud is picked up by
microphone B and returned to earphone A. The slight delay introduced by the signal
transit time (along the line and back) means that ‘A’ hears a slightly delayed echo of his
- 24 INTRODUCTION
SIGNAL
TO
TRANSITION AND THE BASIC LINE CIRCUIT
or her own voice. The anti-sidetone circuit in instrument B helps to control this effect,
by reducing the signal feedback from the earphone to the microphone of B’s handset.
The echo path from microphone A (via earphone B, microphone B and earphone A) is
therefore largely eliminated. We will learn in Chapter 33, however, that this is not the
only possible echo path in practical networks, and that even more precautions may
need to be taken.
2.5 AUTOMATIC SYSTEMS: CENTRAL BATTERY AND
EXCHANGE CALLING
A practical problem encountered by the circuit in Figure 2.6, when it was employed in
early telephone networks was that it required an individual battery (local battery)to be
provided in each telephone customers line. Thus a common (or central) battery ( C B )
systemwasdeveloped. One largebattery,orpowersystem, is positioned in each
exchange and it provides the necessary power for all customers’ lines terminated at that
exchange. The use of a CB system (in preference to individual line local batteries) has
significant benefit in simplifying the job of maintenance.
Figure 2.7 illustrates a central battery configuration. Note that a high impedance coil
has been added to the circuit. This forms part of another normal circuit feature called
the transmission bridge. Without the transmission bridge coil the speech currents from
one telephone wouldbeshorted out by the battery and not heard in the receiving
telephone. An inductive coil prevents this shorting. A high resistance can be used but
this has the disadvantage causing conversation overhearing in all the other telephones
of
connected to the same central battery.
Returning now to the circuit of Figure 2.6, there are three more deficiencies that
make it unsuitable for direct use in a real telephone network. These are that
0 the circuit is always drawing electrical power
0 the customer has no means of calling the exchange, to set-up calls to other customers
0 the exchange has no means of alerting the called customer (for example, ringing the
telephone)
r - - - -1
l V I
Earphone I Earphone
I ‘f.
‘Switch polnts, I
lallowing I
Micropknz to a range
of ,
I interconnection I Secondary
other customers’
wlndlng
I
Battery Battery
I
I I Transformer
Transformer L - - - - J
Exchange
Figure 2.6 Basic two-way telephonecircuit
- AUTOMATIC
SYSTEMS: CENTRAL BATTERY AND EXCHANGE CALLING 25
Speech (Coil prevents
current short circuit
m
-, t h r o u g hb a t t e r y )
-----
Figure 2.7 A simple transmission bridge
The first two problems above can be solved by providing a switch in the telephone
handset which is activated when the handset is lifted off the cradle. In this way the
telephone circuit is ‘open circuit’ when the handset is on-hook and does not draw power
when not in use. When required for use, lifting the handset completes the circuit, an
actionwhich is sometimes called looping thecircuit. On detection of the loop the
exchange readies itself to receive the telephone number of the calledparty, and indicates
this readiness by returning dialling tone. The calling customer may then dial the number
on the telephone handset and the number is relayed to the exchange by one of the
following two signalling methods:
a loop and disconnect pulsing
a multi-frequency ( M F ) tone signalling
Loop and disconnect pulsing or L D signalling is the older of the two methods and the
most prevalent. The line is disconnected and re-looped in a very rapid sequence. The
effect is to cause a short period, or pulse of disconnection. The pulses are used to
indicate the digits of the destination number, one pulse for a digit of value ‘one’, two
pulses for value ‘two’, etc., up to 10 pulses for digit ‘zero’. The pulses are repeated at a
frequency of ten per second. Thus the digit ‘1’ will take one-tenth of a second to send,
and digit ‘0’ will take a whole second. Between each digit, a longer gap of half a second
is left, so that the exchange may differentiate between the sequences of pulses represent-
ing consecutive digits of the overall numbers. The gap is called the inter-digit pause
(ZDP). A telephone number is typically ten digits in length and takes 6-15 seconds to
dial from the telephone, depending on the values of the actual digits.
Multi-frequency (MF), or tone signalling is amorerecentinvention.Its use is
growing because the digits may relayed much faster (in 1-2 seconds) and this reduces
be
the call set-up time or post-diallingdelay ( P D D ) if the exchanges are fast in their
switching action. The exchange still needs to be alerted initially by looping the line, but
following the dial tone the digits are dialled by the customer as a numberof short burst
of tones. Rather than detecting the disconnect pulses, the exchange must instead detect
the frequency of the tones to determine the digitvalues of the destination number. Each
digit is represented by a combination of two pure frequency tones. The use of two tones
- 26 INTRODUCTION TO SIGNAL TRANSITION AND THE BASIC LINE CIRCUIT
Table 2.2 Multi-frequency (MF) tone signalling (customer to exchange)
High frequency group
~ ~~
1633 Hz
Low frequency group 1208 H z 1336 Hz 1477 H z (not used)
697 Hz 1 2 3 spare
770 Hz 4 5 6 spare
852 Hz l 8 9 spare
941 Hz * 0 # spare
in combination reduces the risk of mis-operation if other interfering noises are present
on the line. Table 2.2 lists the frequencies used.
Following receipt of the number, the exchange network sets up a connection to the
desired destination and alerts the culled customer. Ringing the telephone is the normal
means of alerting, or attracting the called customer’s attention. To achieve ringing, a
large alternating current is applied to the called customer’s line to activate the bell.
Entirelyanalogue or digitalequipment
4 *
Transmitter Local ‘Junction’ or Receiver
Exchange Exchange
Receiver line ‘trunk’ Transmitter
c
( a ) Asimplenetwork of entirelyanalogue or
digitalcomponents
Analogue digital analogue
4
sub- network L,
c
I- -network
sub L-s u b - n e t w o r k
r
- I I
7
1
Digital
Analogue
Analogue digital
exchange
- local
line
’ exchange
line
trunk
I I
I I
Analogue to
digital ( A / D )
conversiondevice
( b ) A networkcomprisingbothanalogueand
digital components
Figure 2.8 Interworking dissimilar networks
- REAL COMMUNICATIONS NETWORKS 27
Simultaneously, a ring tone is returned to the caller. The bell does not ring at other
times because the normal line current is insufficient to cause the bellhammer vibration.
In response to the ringing telephone, the called customer picks up the handset, and
therefore loops the line. On detection of the loop, the exchange trips (ceases) the ringing,
and conversationmay then take place. the end of the conversation the caller replaces
At
the handset thereby removing the loop, so that the line is disconnected. The exchange
responds by clearing the rest of the connection.
2.6 REAL COMMUNICATIONS NETWORKS
We have now developed all the basic principles of telephone communication. Similar
principles apply in nearly all communication network types, the remaining chapters
and
of this develop principles,
book these discussing detail solutions
in the to
the
complications that exist in practice. Before ending the chapter, however,valuable to
is it
point out another reality of practical networks. Although similar principles might form
the foundation of nearly all telecommunications networks, it is not true to say that all
networks are fully compatible, allowing interconnection. direct
direct Indeed
interconnection of dissimilar networks (e.g. telephone and telex) is almost impossible,
withlittleexception.Whereinterconnection of dissimilarnetworksispossible,it is
usually by the use of special interworking or conversion equipment at the interface of
the two dissimilar networks.
Even two telephone networks, one operating using the analogue encoding technique,
and the otherusing the digital one,cannot be directly interconnected without the of use
conversion equipment. The equipment is needed to convert the information from its
digitally encoded form into the equivalent analogue signal, and vice versa. The final
diagram in thischapter,Figure 2.8, shows an example of interworkingdissimilar
networks. It illustrates the positioning of analogue to digital (and vice versa) conversion
equipment at the interface of interconnected analogue and digital sub-networks.
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