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GENDER STEREOTYPES IN ADVERTISING:
VIETNAM LUNAR NEW YEAR VIDEO ADVERTISEMENTS
KHUÔN MẪU GIỚI TRONG QUẢNG CÁO:
QUẢNG CÁO VIDEO DỊP TẾT ÂM LỊCH VIỆT NAM
PhD, Van-Anh T. Truong; MSc, Phuong T. Nguyen
University of Economics – The University of Danang
vananhtt@due.edu.vn
Abstract
Due to the global economy’s impact, the strong development of the 4.0 technology revolu-
tion, and the demographic changes, Vietnam faces new gender equality challenges. This study is
set out to answer two major research questions: (1) Are there gender stereotypes in the video ad-
vertisements for Tet Holiday? and (2) How women and men are portrayed in those advertise-
ments? By reviewing previous literature and analyzing qualitative data from video content
analysis, the research team unravels gender-based role designation patterns between men and
women, which continue to disadvantage women and perpetuate gender stereotypes. Several rec-
ommendations for measures to make advertisements gender stereotype-free are also provided.
Keywords: gender biased; gender stereotypes; video advertising; Lunar New Year;
Tet Vietnam
Tóm tắt
Dưới tác động của nền kinh tế toàn cầu, sự phát triển mạnh mẽ của cuộc cách mạng công
nghệ 4.0 và sự thay đổi về nhân khẩu học, Việt Nam phải đối mặt với những thách thức mới về
bình đẳng giới. Nghiên cứu này được đặt ra để trả lời hai câu hỏi nghiên cứu chính: (1) Có định
kiến giới trong các video quảng cáo dịp Tết không? và (2) Nữ giới và nam giới được miêu tả như
thế nào trong các quảng cáo này? Bằng cách xem xét các tài liệu trước đây và phân tích dữ liệu
định tính với kĩ thuật phân tích nội dung video, nhóm nghiên cứu đã làm sáng tỏ các khuôn mẫu
về vai trò dựa trên giới giữa nam và nữ, vốn tiếp tục gây bất lợi cho phụ nữ và kéo dài định kiến
giới. Một số khuyến nghị về các biện pháp để quảng cáo thoát khỏi khuôn mẫu giới cũng được
đưa ra.
Từ khóa: định kiến giới; khuôn mẫu giới; quảng cáo video; năm mới âm lịch; Tết Việt Nam
1. Introduction
Since the ratification of the U.N.’s Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrim-
ination against Women (CEDAW) in 1982, Vietnam has made encouraging progress on legal pro-
visions to promote gender equality, especially in comparison with most other countries with
similar levels of income. These include the 2006 Law on Gender Equality, the 2007 Law on Do-
mestic Violence Prevention and Control, and the National Strategy for Gender Equality for the
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period of 2011-2020 (The World Bank, 2011). Particularly, having realized the effects of main-
stream media on public perception of social realities, the government resolutely aims to reduce
cultural and information products with gender prejudice by 60% by 2015 and 80% by 2020 as
well as to increase the airtime of specialized programs and sections on gender equality propaganda
and education.
However, such persistent efforts to raise social awareness about gender issues have not
completely changed gender stereotypes. Several studies stated that Vietnam is still a largely pa-
triarchal society as evidenced by the high rates of gender-based violence, the representation of
women in the media in stereotypical ways, and their discrimination from accessing leadership
roles in politics and the workplace (Duong, 2001; Mate Susan, McDonald, & Do, 2019; Nguyen
Thi Thu Ha, 2012; Tran Thi Yen Minh, 2015; H. T. Vu, Barnett, Duong, & Lee, 2019; T. Vu,
Dương, Barnett, & Lee, 2016). Notably, a series of studies on gender and media conducted in
2007 and 2008 by Oxfam and Center for Studies and Applied Sciences in Gender, Family, Women
and Adolescents (CSAGA) revealed a significant amount of gender stereotyping in media report-
ing. For example, men were typically depicted as strong, decisive, better at economics and poli-
tics, and often portrayed in leadership positions while women were presented as gentle,
responsible for homemaking, childrearing, and maintaining family stability in low-income posi-
tions. Research sponsored by UNESCO in 2009 analyzing the content of communication products
in print media and television also pointed to similar conclusions as those findings mentioned
above. There are few stories and television programs that promote gender equality. The media is
better at making sure there is an equal number of women and men on television game shows than
ensuring gender-sensitive reporting or actively promoting unconventional gender roles for both
women and men.
Gender stereotyping has been extensively researched since the 1970s across cultures and
countries (Courtney & Lockeretz, 1971). The portrayal of gender in different media, including
print, radio, television, and, increasingly, the Internet, has likewise received extensive attention
(Aramendia-Muneta, Olarte-Pascual, & Hatzithomas, 2020; Eisend, 2010; Fowler & Thomas,
2015; Grau & Zotos, 2016; Kitsa & Mudra, 2020; Middleton, Turnbull, & de Oliveira, 2020;
Nguyen Thi Thu Ha, 2015). Regarding gender and media research in Vietnam for the past decade,
most focus on linguistic perspectives and apply Critical Discourse Analysis (Nguyen Hong Lien,
2016; Nguyen Thi Thu Ha, 2012; Tran Thi Yen Minh, 2015). Others turn their attention to female
leadership and representation in media (H. T. Vu, 2019; H. T. Vu et al., 2019; T. Vu et al., 2016).
Thus, this study will fill this gap by reviewing the extant literature on gender and media, specif-
ically in the context of gender stereotyping, and exploring how genders are represented in Viet-
namese advertising. The main aim is to identify the pattern of gender stereotypes in video
advertisements for the Tet Holiday – the biggest and the most important celebration in Vietnam
and the different roles played by men and women in those ads.
2. Literature review
2.1. Gender stereotypes in media
Gender issues are mentioned along with female visions expressed by metaphor images, es-
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pecially in magazines’ female time/spaces (Cronin, 2005). Similarly, media for children tend to
show males more actively and dominant than females (Browne, 1998; Fitzpatrick & McPherson,
2010; Golden & Jacoby, 2018; Weitzman, Eifler, Hokada, & Ross, 1972). The portrayal of gender
has been the concerned matter in media studies (Murphy, 1998), where women usually appear
with body shape characteristics, dependence, and blurred roles in the labor force (Anjalin, 2015).
Notably, gender bias in media discourse can be seen in politics (Aaldering & Van Der Pas, 2018;
Dolan, 2013; Kittilson & Fridkin, 2008; Kotzaivazoglou, Hatzithomas, & Tsichla, 2018; Liu,
2019; Sriwimon & Zilli, 2017), sports (Arslan & Koca, 2007; Harris, 2013; Petca, Bivolaru, &
Graf, 2013), and art (Wang, 2009). In other words, media influences on gender stereotypes (Arm-
strong & Nelson, 2005; Goodall, 2012; Wille et al., 2018).
2.2. Gender stereotypes in advertising
According to Grau and Zotos (2016), social and historical contingencies due to feminism
rise, labor force changes, and role structure changes in the family are reflected through dominant
values (mirror debate) or prevailing values (mold debate) in advertising. However, a recent study
of Aramendia-Muneta et al. (2020) has shown that both gender groups are not inequally portrayed,
and males outnumbered females as central figures.
Besides, gender bias is popular in various advertisement types, such as video games (Behm-
Morawitz, 2017; Scharrer, 2004); television commercials (Coltrane & Adams, 1997; Furnham &
Voli, 1989; Kitsa & Mudra, 2020; Knoll, Eisend, & Steinhagen, 2011; Neto & Pinto, 1998; Prieler,
2016; Signorielli, McLeod, & Healy, 1994; Valls-Fernández & Martínez-Vicente, 2007).
Recently, O’Driscoll (2019) stated that advertising seems to stimulate gender tension be-
cause of men’s and women’s opposite positions. The author studied the gender perception of ad-
vertisers or cultural intermediaries who transfer social focus from disturbing women’s imagery
to men’s masculinity. She dug in gender knowledge with gender essentialism, feminism, prob-
lematic and burdensome sex, although almost limited to female voyeurism, female (dis)empow-
erment, and men’s reverse stereotype.
2.3. Gender biased categories
Goffman (1976) examined gender portrayal in his classic study considering gender com-
mercials. Picture frames of gender commercials are characterized by relative size, the feminine
touch, function ranking, the family, ritualization, and withdrawal. These categories are repeated
in many other researches (Chhabra, Andereck, Yamanoi, & Plunkett, 2011; Cohen, 1993; Döring
& Pöschl, 2006; Hovland, McMahan, Lee, Hwang, & Kim, 2005; Kang, 1997; Lindner, 2004;
Marshment, 2005; Oppermann & McKinley, 1997; Pritchard & Morgan, 2000; Sirakaya & Son-
mez, 2000). Additionally, Furnham and Voli (1989) considered gender stereotypes by classifying
central figures into gender, mode, credibility, role, location, reward, product price, argument,
background, humor, and comment.
In Vietnamese advertisements, Nguyen Thi Thu Ha (2015) pointed out that women are usu-
ally depicted as homemakers (doing housework, family roles of working women), caregivers
(taking care of children, men, and the elderly) whose jobs are less important than men’s. Besides,
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they are represented as physically and mentally weaker than men, are not the ones who give so-
lutions, emphasize on traditional femininity, and need to be beautiful to seduce men. This result
is similar to the study of Nguyen Hong Lien (2016) with portrayals of women as family cook,
teachers, caretakers of children/family members, subordinate partners of their spouses, household
chores performers, linked to children’s parenthood.
3. Research methodology
Video content analysis
Content analysis is an appropriate method of understanding gender stereotypes via system-
atically unfolding the message (Kerkhoven, Russo, Land-Zandstra, Saxena, & Rodenburg, 2016;
Taylor, 2003). Lune and Berg (2017) explained this method as a qualitative data collection and
analysis with an objective coding scheme. Because of its diverse application ability, content analy-
sis is discussed by Hsieh and Shannon (2005) that contains conventional, directed, and summative
approaches.
In examining sexual stereotypes, video content analysis is proved as a useful methodology
(Combs, 2010; Cowan & O’Brien, 1990; Lynch, Tompkins, van Driel, & Fritz, 2016). More de-
tails, Hua, Li, and Mei (2010) divided it into 4 steps:
iDecomposing a video structure into sub-shots;
iExtracting intention-oriented features from the sub-shots;
iDetermining intention units via the extracted features;
iClassifying the intention units into the intention categories via the extracted features
Sampling method
This study selects advertisements videotaped for Lunar New Year of the mouse (2020) that
appeared on YouTube. As Kotler and Armstrong (2018) stated, advertising is any paid form of
nonpersonal presentation and ideas, goods, or services promotion by an identified sponsor. Not
limited to traditional television commercials, the year 2020 is remarked by the presence of many
videos performed by Vietnamese singers or celebrities. Hence, the chosen videos are any pub-
lished forms intentionally attached by specific brands. Their contents are built for the Tet holidays
– the traditional vacation that is meaningful to Vietnamese people. They reflect Vietnam’s cultural
values, which are appropriate to examine Vietnam’s gender stereotypes.
Coding scheme
Based on steps for video content analysis proposed by Hua et al. (2010) and the conceptual
framework, extracted features in advertisements are coded into intention units representing gender
stereotypes (see Table 1).
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Table 1. Coding scheme
Extracted features Intention units Gender stereotypes
Relative size Male Masculinity
Female
Mode of presentation Voice-over (Dis)empowerment
Disembodied voice-overs Visual Female appearance
Visual portrayal, no speaking part Physical/Mental health
Visual portrayal and a speaking part
Credibility User Solution giver
Users of advertised product Authority
Source of information
Role Dependent Household role
Parent, spouse, partner, sex object, homemaker Independent Gender essentialism
Professional Inspirator Community role
Interviewer/narrator (including celebrity)
Location Homemaking Household role
Home Job importance Gender essentialism
Occupational Feminism/Masculinity
Leisure
Argument Subjective Rational
Factual evidence or technical information Objective Emotional
Personal views or testimonials Neutral Neutral
Other
Reward Type Social Approval Perfection burden
Approval from opposite gender, family, friends Self-enhance- Self-enhancement
Improvement in health and/or appearance ment Rational
Saving time and/or money and/or effort Practical
Pleasure Enjoyment
Emotion Humor Positive
Drama Negative
Source: Compiled by the authors
4. Results and discussion
Female is homemaker
Based on the frequency of mentions, the first gender stereotype is detected with 70% of
videos in total, similarly to the results shown in previous studies (Nguyen Hong Lien, 2016;
Nguyen Thi Thu Ha, 2015). It is about the role of the female as a homemaker. They naturally
think about their home-related responsibilities with housework, caregiving, the harmony of rela-
tionships. The focal figures are mostly mothers-in-law, daughters-in-law who always be the main
characters that prepare for the Tet holidays. They appear within homing scenes and take over
cleaning, cooking, while males appear with the tasks related to planting, repairing, and taking
their children out. Although women sometimes seem not to care much about these tasks, they
are immediately blamed by the elderly. For instance, a middle-aged woman enjoying street food
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is scolded by an older adult with a feather broom (vid4), or a grandfather is only a helper to his
wife while making jam (vid17). Similarly, the visual and voice-overs in vid5 emphasize that Viet-
namese women are busying shopping for their families. At the same time, men gather for year-
end parties or riding on vehicles to pick their spouses up.
Male is competent
The second stereotype is the competence of males (60% of mentions). They are expected
to earn higher, more successful than women in their professional careers. In vid10, the parents
mention gifts from their sons (motorbike, house). Besides, the young man repeats his father’s re-
minders regarding great spirit and the ability to fill the ocean or move the mountains, focusing
on his pressure because of the family expectations. So does the young men in vid24 or the husband
in vid26 (the salary has not been increased, the financial stress):
“Lòng buồn hấp hối, lắng lo đủ thứ trên đời. Vợ thì ngồi một góc, đếm hóa đơn để rồi bật
khóc. Lương thì chưa kịp tăng, xe thì hết cả xăng, ăn còn không đủ no, trăm ngàn thứ phải lo.”
(Temporarily translated: Overwhelmed with sadness and wories about everything. The wife is
sitting in the corner, crying due to overdue bills. The salary has not increased yet; the car is out
of gas, the stomach still not be full, hundreds of thousands of worrying things.)
This burden is the reason why the image of men who choose working far from home is re-
curring in clips videotaped for the Lunar New Year. They face many internal conflicts of returning
to their hometown to spend time with parents and grandparents. This result consolidates the state-
ment of Nguyen Hong Lien (2016) that images of success or relaxation attach Vietnamese males.
Disempowerment
Half of video advertisements represents the disempowerment of Vietnamese women. In
most cases, they are unconditionally waiting for their husbands or sons to enjoy the Lunar New
Year with their beloved ones. It seems that their happiness and joyfulness depends solely on males
in their family. Furthermore, in terms of relative size, the sizes of female characters are mostly
smaller than males’, showing the hidden message that men are the breadwinners.
This gender-based pattern confirms that women are subordinate partners of their spouses
analyzed by Nguyen Hong Lien (2016). It is matched with a Vietnamese traditional female portrait
who always passively waiting for their husbands. This image can be easily found in Vietnamese
poem or songs, such as “Sao chưa thấy hồi âm” (temporarily translated: Why haven’t (I) seen
any reply?). The lyrics are filled with the image of an anxious woman linking herself with the
petrified wife named To Thi because of holding her child to wait for her husband.
Gender essentialism
Males are often characterized by jobs that need strong physical health, tech-savviness, cre-
ativeness, dynamism, while women are preoccupied with works that need meticulousness (tai-
loring, housework), psychological knowledge (human resources). As can be seen, there is progress
in the perception of gender stereotypes in Vietnam because career is not the object of comparison
anymore, more positive than the findings of Nguyen Thi Thu Ha (2015).
Female has perfection burden
More than one-third of video advertisements clearly depict female portrayal as perfect
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wives, caring mothers who also know how to treat their beloved people and friends (i.e., “ women” of vid20). It can be seen that they have the burden of being perfect. In other
words, they tend to attain approval from the opposite gender, family, and friends. This stereotype
is similar to the associations of working women’s housing roles, as Nguyen Thi Thu Ha (2015)
mentioned, and the depiction of a Vietnamese woman who has very little time for herself because
of doing so many tasks. In vid32, “Mom is always busy, while dad is holding a smartphone to
read the newspaper all day” - in Vietnamese: “Mẹ luôn tất bật, ba suốt ngày cầm phone đọc báo”.
Besides, childbearing pressure is a common worry of any married woman. However, different
from the traditional questions in Tet holidays, marriage is considered the private information that
not any female is ready to share. For example, in vid28, “When will you marry?” (Bao giờ lấy
chồng?) has become a susceptible question in the sarcastic conversation between two females.
Picture of Vietnamese men and women
Vietnam males appear with masculinity (35%), being rational (25%) and positive (22.5%).
No matter challenges and difficulties males faced, they overcame them with better physical and
mental conditions as compared to females.
In line with gender essentialism mentioned above, Vietnamese women is illustrated as emo-
tional (27.5%) and compassionate (22.5%). Although female appearance is no longer the main
focus of advertisements, it is indicated that women always care about their appearance.
Implications
Gender identities and gender relations are critical aspects of culture because they shape the
way daily life is lived in the family, but also in the wider community and the workplace. Hence,
there is need for studies of gender issues in different cultural contexts to understand different as-
pects of gender (in)equality all over the world. The main contribution of this study to the research
stream therefore lies in providing a qualitative analysis of gender stereotypes perpetuated by the
Vietnamese media’s Lunar New Year advertisements. The results show that despite decades of
socialist policies emphasizing gender equality, gender-based role designation pattern between
men and women appears to have changed little. A popular theme found in the Tet-related video
advertisements is that women are mostly described in the context of their traditional homemaking
and caregiving roles while men are strong, decisive, and the primary breadwinners. Women are
less likely to play the central figure, which may undermine their role as leaders or the brand’s
main image. This suggests the lingering hold of Confucian principles of women’s subordinate
position within the household. With such stereotypical representations, advertisers have generally
contributed to creating and perpetuating stereotypes of what a successful woman should look
like in contemporary Vietnamese society. The study further points out that marketers apparently
use existing gender-related values in a society to promote their brands rather than trying to alter
these values. These findings support the arguments of stereotypical depictions of gender roles in
advertising previously discussed in Vietnamese context by Nguyen Thi Thu Ha (2012), Tran Thi
Yen Minh (2015), Nguyen Hong Lien (2016).
Having said that, the research also provides evidence of changing perceptions, require-
ments, and desires. This needs to be incorporated as soon as possible in actual practice concerning
visual online marketing content. Marketers, advertisers, and enterprises should consider changing
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central figures to create more advertisements depicting women in more egalitarian societal roles.
Such a transformation could help achieve gender equality and enhance women’s role as leaders.
Furthermore, changing these stereotypical associations may improve brand attitude and broaden
target customers.
Tet is still portrayed as the biggest celebration in the country, emphasizing the importance
and strength of families as the foundation of Vietnamese civilization’s durability. The spirit of
“collectivism” is highlighted throughout most advertisements. Traditional values such as soli-
darity, intimacy, filial piety, and mutual respect are reflected in the New Year reunion dinner – an
auspicious occasion of family togetherness. Nevertheless, multiple pressures for men and women
to act according to traditional roles are also spotlighted during this particular time. Therefore,
Tet-related video advertisements should be a medium to encourage men and women to act outside
existing stereotypes and provide examples of how gender need not affect success at home or
work.
Another interesting finding is that in some video advertisements, the sexuality of the central
figure is undefined, indicating the emerging acceptance of the Vietnamese audience to lesbians,
gays, bisexuals, and transgender people. Businesses and marketers may consider increasing this
community in mainstream media to spotlight a more neutral and equal culture, raising public
awareness about sexuality issues in modern society.
At the macro level, the research might be useful for the practice of advertising when being
confronted with public policy concerns or plans for government regulations of advertising practice
regarding gender stereotyping in advertisement. It is suggested for relevant government bodies,
social organizations, and individuals to design responsive interventions ultimately aim to promote
gender stereotype-free media content. Some recommendations include increasing gender equality
knowledge through longer training courses that provide relevant information to advertising prac-
tices. Gender equality content needs to be incorporated into each advertising agency’s codes of
conduct to ensure that it will offer content creators and producers guidelines in their everyday
work. Moreover, social organizations need to react to advertisements on stereotypical content by
closely monitoring and holding timely dialogues with media outlets, agencies, and businesses
promptly.
6. Conclusions
Despite significant changes in the economy, the gender gap in education and employment,
the opening up of society to global influences, and persistent efforts to change attitudes and prac-
tices related to gender roles, our research points out that mainstream media have still continued
to reinforce traditional women’s roles in homemaking, childrearing and maintaining family sta-
bility meanwhile men are depicted as career people and the financial backbone of the family.
These unfair gender depictions stem from deep-rooted cultural tradition regarding men and
women’s position in the family. Although we found evidence of stereotypical representations, it
is happening at a declining rate as more advertisements feature females out of the familial context
and the LGBT community. The present findings help advance the knowledge of gender studies
and digital advertising in the Vietnamese context and highlight the limited social roles available
to Vietnamese women and their continuing pressure to fulfill their traditional family roles.
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This study’s limited time and resources did not allow for an expanded examination of other
types of media content, including game shows, talk shows, or news pieces besides video adver-
tisements. However, this is a suggestion for future research for a more thorough investigation of
gender stereotypes in mainstream media content. Another interesting research direction is to focus
on different formats of video advertising, such as animated videos or original digital videos.
Along with rapid changes in the socio-economic environment, other studies may also investigate
recent gender-related advertising trends, such as the representation of LGBT or femvertising –
female empowerment advertising.
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