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- Handbook of
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Control
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- HANDBOOK OF
AIR POLLUTION PREVENTION
AND CONTROL
- HANDBOOK OF
AIR POLLUTION PREVENTION
AND CONTROL
Nicholas P. Cheremisinoff, Ph.D.
N &P Limited
P=-=EINEMANN
An imprint of Elsevier Science
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- Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier Science.
Copyright 02002, Elsevier Science (USA). All rights reserved.
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@ Recognizing the importance of preserving what has been written, Elsevier Science
prints its books on acid-free paper whenever possible.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Cheremisinoff, Nicholas P.
Handbook of air pollution prevention and control / Nicholas P. Cheremisinoff.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-7506-7499-7 (alk. paper)
1. Air quality management. 2. Air-Pollution. 3. Factory and trade
waste-Environmental aspects. I . Title.
TD883 .C435 2002
628.5’34~21
20020 18563
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- CONTENTS
Preface, vii
About the Author, xi
Chapter 1. Introduction to Air Quality, 1
Introduction, 1
An Overview of the Clean Air Act Amendments, 1
Fate and Transport in the Environment, 9
A Few of the Priority Air Pollutants, 15
Indoor Air Quality, 42
Organization of Handbook Subjects, 48
Recommended Resources for the Reader, 51
Review and Questions to Get You Thinking, 51
Chapter 2. Industrial Air Pollution Sources and Prevention, 53
Introduction, 53
Air Pollution in the Chemical Process Industries, 53
Air Pollution in the Petroleum Industry, 79
Air Pollution from Iron and Steel Manufacturing, 112
Air Pollution from Lead and Zinc Smelting, 130
Air Pollution from Nickel Ore Processing and Refining, 134
Air Pollution from Aluminum Manufacturing, 137
Air Pollution from Copper Smelting, 141
Recommended Resources for the Reader, 144
Review and Questions to Get You Thinking, 146
Chapter 3. Properties of Air Pollutants, 148
Introduction, 148
Selected Chemical and Physical Properties of Potential Atmospheric Pollutants, 148
Basic Properties and Terminology, 158
Accessing the World-Wide Web for Data Bases, 183
Recommended Resources for the Reader, 184
Review and Questions to Get You Thinking, 186
Chapter 4 . Ventilation and Indoor Air Quality Control, 188
Introduction, 188
An Overview of Indoor Air Quality, 188
The Basics of HVAC Systems, 191
V
- IAQ Issues and Impacts on Occupants, 195
Application of Audits to Developing an IAQ Profile, 200
Developing Management Plans, 206
How to Diagnose IAQ Problems, 213
Control, 228
Quantification and Measurement, 238
Recommended Resources for the Reader, 278
Review and Questions to Get You Thinking, 279
Chapter 5. Air Pollution Dispersion, 28 1
Introduction, 281
Dispersion Theory Basics, 282
Estimating the Air Quality Impact of Stationary Sources, 297
Other Models and Resources, 326
Case Study Applying SCREEN, 335
References and Recommended Resources for the Reader, 342
Review and Questions to Get You Thinking, 344
Chapter 6. Prevention Versus Control, 348
Introduction, 348
Pollution Prevention: When and How, 350
Principles of Pollution Prevention, 356
References and Recommended Resources for the Reader, 384
Review and Questions to Get You Thinking, 387
Chapter 7 . Prevention and Control Hardware, 389
Introduction, 389
Methods of Particulate Collection, 389
Methods for Cleaning Gaseous Pollutants, 446
References and Recommended Resources for the Reader, 488
Chapter 8. Environmental Cost Accounting, 498
Introduction, 498
Total Cost Accounting Terminology, 500
Case Study, 512
Glossary, 5 15
Index, 553
vi
- This volume covers the practices and technologies that are applied to the prevention
of air pollution, and to the cleaning and control of industrial air emissions.
Although there are numerous publications that address these subjects, rarely are
prevention and control concepts considered together in a single volume. This book
provides a bridge for today’s environmental manager by focusing on an integrated
approach to managing air pollution problems within industrial operations. There are
eight chapters.
Chapter 1 provides orientation and an introduction to the subject of air quality. The
focus of this book is on industrial air pollution problems. We begin by reviewing
the regulatory driving force in the United States for air pollution abatement. To
appreciate the objectives of our Federal air pollution control regulations, an
understanding of the fate and transport mechanisms in the environment is
important. Hence, some general discussions on the behavior of pollutants in the
atmosphere are included in this chapter. There are only two general methods for
ensuring high quality air. These options are the application of control technologies
that clean air or remove pollutants, and methods of prevention. In general,
prevention is more cost-effective than the application of end-of-pipe treatment
technologies, however, there are many situations where control technologies
represent the only feasible methods to managing air pollution problems. Both
approaches are presented in this volume, and the reader will need to assess which
is the most appropriate means on a case by case basis. At the end of Chapter 1 you
will fmd a summary of the topics to be discussed in thls volume. This will help you
to focus on specific areas of reading that are most useful to you. There is also a list
of recommended resources, including Web sites, as well as a review section.
In Chapter 2 we focus our attention on some of the point sources of air emissions
within different types of plant operations, along with the methods of abatement and
prevention. Although we do not make direct comparisons between prevention and
control methodologies until Chapter 6 , the reader should gain an appreciation for
the simplicity of applying pollution prevention as opposed to incorporating
engineering controls in many situations. While we will not cover all the important
industry sector sources of air pollution in this chapter, an attempt is made to
examine a broad spectrum of so-called “heavy-industries”. These are industry
sectors that are plagued with air pollution problems, and have had a long history
in battling them.
- There are literally many thousands of chemical compounds that may pose potential
air pollution problems. It would be impossible to present all the pertinent data and
information needed to evaluate each and every air pollution scenario. There are,
however, a wealth of information and data bases that are available on the World
Wide Web, along with a number of standard hard copy references to obtain
information on the chemical and physical properties, and health risks of potential
atmospheric contaminants. Chapter 3 provides information on the following three
areas:
Selected chemical and physical properties, and data of common and potential
1.
atmospheric contaminants.
An overview of important terms and definitions useful in assessing the
2.
potentially harmful effects of air pollutants.
A summary of Web site sources that provide extensive data bases on the
3.
chemical and physical properties, as well as health risk effects associated
with air contaminants.
Chapter 4 provides an overview of indoor air quality (IAQ)ssues and management
i
practices, with emphasis given to industrial operations. Proper indoor air quality
management is an integral part of any program dealing with safe industry practices.
It is an area of concern because improperly designed ventilation systems lead to
sigmficant health risk exposures through inhalation hazards, as well as energy
inefficiencies, which increase the overhead costs of an operation. IAQ is an area
where control and operational options may present significant pollution prevention
opportunitiesthrough the capturing of energy credits, in increasing the productivity
of workers through improved comfort, reducing loss time from illness and injury,
reducing medical costs by minimizing or eliminating inhalation hazards, and
reducing facility insurance premiums by providing a safer work environment.
Chapter 5 describes simplified methods of estimating airborne pollutant
concentration distributions associated with stationary emission sources. There are
sophisticated models available to predict and to assist in evaluating the impact of
pollutants on the environment and to sensitive receptors such as populated areas.
In this chapter we will explore the basic principles behind dispersion models and
then apply a simplified model that has been developed by EPA to analyzing air
dispersion problems. There are practice and study problems at the end of this
chapter. A screening model for air dispersion impact assessments called SCREEN,
developed by USEPA is highlighted in this chapter, and the reader is provided with
details on how to download the software and apply it.
Chapter 6 makes a strong argument for pollution prevention (E) practices, but is
prudent in pointing out that there are many situations where conventional pollution
- control technologies will suffice. The general approach to pollution prevention and
the pollution prevention assessment or auditing technique is discussed in detail. The
overall concepts discussed in this chapter are:
1. The benefits of P2 to an organization.
2. The basic approach to applying and integrating p2 into an organization, with
emphasis given to managing air pollution problems.
3. When P2 should and should not be applied.
Chapter 7 focuses on hardware. The intent is to provide a working description of
pollution control hardware, as well as to hghlight those technologies and equipment
that may be applicable to pollution prevention opportunities. As stated in this
chapter, we should never approach an air pollution problem (or any pollution and
waste problem) without first considering other options to end-of-pipe treatment and
controls. If the waste or pollution can be prevented or minimized without the use
of controls that require long-term O&M and other recurring costs, then that should
be the first choice, provided there is sufficient financial justification. But, the
absolutely wrong reason for selecting pollution prevention (E) ver conventional
o
wisdom is to do E for the sake of doing it. This chapter will provide you with a
good overview of the technology options for air pollution control, as well an arsenal
of important references.
Chapter 8 covers the principles of cost accounting. The focus of this chapter is
project cost estimating. This is sometimes referred to as total cost accounting. The
term total-cost accounting (TCA) has also come to be commonly known as life-
cycle costing (LCC). LCC is a method aimed at analyzing the costs and benefits
associated with a piece of equipment, plant, or a project over the entire time of
intended use. Experience has shown that the up-front purchase price alone is a poor
measure of the total cost. Instead, costs such as those associated with
maintainability, reliability, disposal, and salvage value, as well as employee
training and education, must be given equal weight in making financial decisions.
By the same token, justifying the investment into a piece of equipment requires that
all benefits and costs be clearly defined in the most concrete terms possible, and
projected over the life of each technology option.
References are noted throughout the book for further information. Particular
attention is given to Web site sources where detailed equipment design information
and chemical property data bases exist.
At the end of the book is a glossary containing several hundred terms commonly
used in pollution prevention and control practices. You can rely on the glossary for
terms not identified in the text discussions, and as a general reference.
- You will also find a liberal application of sidebar discussions at various points in
different chapters. Here you will find some interesting and useful facts and
formulas.
This handbook is intended for environmental managers and process engineers.
Some subject matter is covered in survey or overview form, whereas others are
treated in more depth. In both cases, important references are noted where detaded
information can be obtained. The overall objective of this volume is not simply to
provide a general reference, but to serve as a resource for developing approaches
to managing air pollution problems. If the reader can get just one good idea from
reading over the material in this volume to solve an air pollution problem, and
further, capture some economic incentives that normally accompany a pollution
prevention practice, then I have not only done a good job in writing this book, but
you have made a wise investment in its purchase.
A heartfelt thanks goes to Butterworth Heinemann for their patience during the
writing of this book, and to their fine production. A special thank you is extended
to Laura Berendson and Tara Habhegger for their creative efforts throughout the
production of h s volume.
Nicholas P. Cheremisinofi Ph.D.
X
- ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Nicholas P. Cheremisinoff is a consultant to industry, lending institutions and donor
agencies, and environmental litigation firms, specializing in pollution prevention
and environmental due care issues. His career now spans nearly 25 years with
experiences in manufacturing, applied research and development, and business
development. He has assisted and led hundreds of pollution prevention programs
and remediation projects, assisted in the privatization of major overseas industrial
complexes, and consulted on developing foreign national policies on waste
management. Among his client base are the World Bank Organization, the U .S.
Trade and Development Agency, the U .S. Department of Energy, and numerous
private sector companies. He has contributed extensively to the industrial press,
having authored, co-authored, or edited more than 100 technical books, including
Butterworth-Heinemann’s Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment
Technologies. Dr. Cheremisinoff received his B .S., M .S., and Ph.D. degrees in
chemical engineering from Clarkson College of Technology.
xi
- HANDBOOK OF
AIR POLLUTION PREVENTION
AND CONTROL
- Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
TO AIR QUALITY
INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides orientation and an introduction to the subject of air quality.
As a part of this introduction, we begin exploring the options for ensuring high
quality air in the environment. The focus of this book is on industrial air pollution
problems, and hence, the term “environment”refers to the universal ecosystem that
humans live and interact in, as well as the workplace.
We begin by reviewing the regulatory driving force in the United States for air
pollution abatement. To appreciate the objectives of our Federal air pollution
control regulations, an understanding of the fate and transport mechanisms in the
environment is important. Hence, some general discussions on the behavior of
pollutants in the atmosphere are included in this chapter.
Obviously, the overall motivation for clean air is protection of health. There are
essentially only two general methods for ensuring high quality air. These options
are the application of control technologies that clean air or remove pollutants, and
methods of prevention. As a general rule of thumb, prevention is more cost-
effective than the application of so-called end-of-pipe treatment technologies.
However, there are many situations where control technologies represent the only
feasible methods to managing air pollution problems. Both approaches are
presented in this volume, and the reader will need to assess which is the most
appropriate means on a case by case basis.
At the end of this chapter you will find a summary of the topics discussed in this
volume. This will help you to focus on specific areas of reading that are most useful
to you. There is also a list of recommended resources, including Web sites.
AN OVERVIEW OF THE CLEAN AIR ACT AMENDMENTS
The regulatory driving force for air pollution control in the United States is the
1
- HANDBOOK OF AIR POLLUTION PREVENTION A ND CONTROL
2
Clean Air Act. Many countries around the world have similar legislation and
national policies aimed at protecting air quality.
The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 included sweeping revisions to the Clean
Air Act, building on U.S. ongressionalproposals advanced during the 1980s.The
C
legislation is designed to curb three major threats to the nation’s environment and
to the health of millions of Americans: acid rain, urban air pollution, and toxic air
emissions. Our focus is on toxic air emissions, but we will review the other
revisions to gain an overall appreciation of the law.
The law also established a national permitting program. Provisions include the
phaseout of ozone-depletingchemicals, roughly according to the schedule outlined
in international negotiations (known as the Revised Montreal Protocol). Several
progressive and creative new themes are embodied in the Amendments; themes
necessary for effectively achieving the air quality goals and regulatory reform
expected from these far-reaching amendments. Specifically the law:
encourages the use of market-based principles and other innovative
approaches, like performance-based standards and emission banking and
trading;
provides a framework from which alternative clean fuels will be used by
setting standards in the fleet and California pilot program that can be met by
the most cost-effective combination of fuels and technology;
promotes the use of clean low sulfur coal and natural gas, as well as
innovative technologies to clean high sulfur coal through the acid rain
program;
reduces enough energy waste and creates enough of a market for clean fuels
derived f o grain and natural gas to cut dependency on oil imports by one
rm
million barreldday ;
promotes energy conservation through an acid rain program that gives
utilities flexibility to obtain needed emission reductions through programs
that encourage customers to conserve
energy.
One component of urban smog
-
- hydrocarbons comes from Although the original Clean Air Act of
automobile emissions,
1977 brought about significant
petroleum refineries, chemical
improvements in air quality, the urban air
plants, dry cleaners, gasoline
pollution problems of ozone (known as
stations, house painting, and
smog), carbon monoxide (CO), and
printing shops. Another key
- - particulate matter (PM,,) persist.
component nitrogen oxides
Currently, over 100 million Americans live
comes from the combustion of
in cities which are out of attainment with
f uel f or transportation,
the public health standards for ozone. The
utiIiries and industries.
most widespread and persistent urban
- INTRODUCTION TO AIR QUALITY 3
pollution problem is ozone. The causes of this and the lesser problem of carbon
monoxide (CO) and particulate matter (PM,,) pollution in our urban areas are
largely due to the diversity and number of urban air pollution sources. While there
are various reasons for continued high levels of ozone pollution, such as growth in
the number of stationary sources of hydrocarbons and continued growth in
automobile travel, perhaps the most telling reason is that the remaining sources of
hydrocarbons are also the most difficult to control. These are the small sources -
generally those that emit less than 100 tons of hydrocarbons per year. These
sources, such as auto body shops and dry cleaners, may individually emit less than
10 tons per year, but collectively emit many hundreds of tons of pollution.
The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 created a new, balanced strategy to attack
the problem of urban smog. While it gives states more time to meet the air quality
standard (up to 20 years for ozone in Los Angeles), it also requires states to make
constant formidable progress in reducing emissions. It requires the Federal
government to reduce emissions from cars, trucks, and buses; from consumer
products such as hair spray and window washing compounds; and from ships and
barges during loading and unloading of petroleum products.
Under Title I , the Federal government must develop the technical guidance that
states need to control stationary sources. The law addresses the urban air pollution
problems of ozone (smog), carbon monoxide (CO), and particulate matter (PM,,,).
Specifically, it clarifies how areas are designated and redesignated "attainment". It
also allows EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) to define the boundaries of
"nonattainment"areas: geographical areas whose air quality does not meet Federal
air quality standards designed to protect public health. The law also establishes
provisions defining when and how the federal government can impose sanctions on
areas of the country that have not met certain conditions.
For ozone, the law establishes nonattainment area classifications ranked accordmg
to the severity of the areas's air pollution problem. These classifications are
marginal, moderate, serious, severe and extreme. The EPA assigns each
nonattainment area one of these categories, thus triggering varying requirements the
area must comply with in order to meet the ozone standard. Nonattainment areas
must implement different control measures, depending upon their classification.
Marginal areas, for example, are the closest to meeting the standard. They are
required to conduct an inventory of their ozone-causing emissions and institute a
permit program. Nonattainment areas with more serious air quality problems must
implement various control measures. The worse the air quality, the more controls
areas must implement.
The law also establishes similar programs for areas that do not meet the federal
health standards for the pollutants carbon monoxide and particulate matter. Areas
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