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Part III: IP Routing
Chapter 12 IP Addressing and Subnetting
Chapter 13 Operating Cisco Routers
Chapter 14 Routing Protocol Concepts and Configuration
Chapter 15 Troubleshooting IP Routing
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This chapter covers the following subjects:
Exam Preparation Tools for Subnetting: This
section lists the various tools that can help you
practice your subnetting skills.
IP Addressing and Routing: This section
moves beyond the basic concepts in Chapter 5,
“Fundamentals of IP Addressing and Routing,”
introducing the purpose and meaning of the
subnet mask.
Math Operations Used When Subnetting:
This section explains how to convert between IP
address and subnet mask formats.
Analyzing and Choosing Subnet Masks: This
section explains the meaning behind subnet
masks, how to choose a subnet mask to meet
stated design goals, and how to interpret a mask
chosen by someone else.
Analyzing Existing Subnets: This section
shows how to determine an IP address’s resident
subnet, broadcast address, and range of addresses
in the subnet.
Design: Choosing the Subnets of a Classful
Network: This section explains how to find all
subnets of a single classful network.
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12
CHAPTER
IP Addressing and Subnetting
The concepts and application of IP addressing and subnetting may well be the most
important topics to understand both for being a well-prepared network engineer and for
being ready to do well on the ICND1, ICND2, and CCNA exams. To design a new network,
engineers must be able to begin with some IP address range and break it into subdivisions
called subnets, choosing the right size of each subnet to meet design requirements.
Engineers need to understand subnet masks, and how to pick the right masks to implement
the designs that were earlier drawn on paper. Even more often, engineers need to
understand, operate, and troubleshoot pre-existing networks, tasks that require mastery of
addressing and subnetting concepts and the ability to apply those concepts from a different
perspective than when designing the network.
This chapter begins Part III of the book, which is focused on the role of routers in an
internetwork. As introduced in Chapter 5, the network layer defines and uses addressing,
routing, and routing protocols to achieve its main goals. After this chapter goes into depth
on addressing, the rest of the chapters in Part III focus on how to implement IP addresses,
routing, and routing protocols inside Cisco routers.
All the topics in this chapter have a common goal, which is to help you understand IP
addressing and subnetting. To prepare you for both real jobs and the exams, this chapter
goes far beyond the concepts as covered on the exam, preparing you to apply these concepts
when designing a network and when you operate and troubleshoot a network. Additionally,
this chapter creates a structure from which you can repeatedly practice the math processes
used to get the answers to subnetting questions.
“Do I Know This Already?” Quiz
The “Do I Know This Already?” quiz allows you to assess if you should read the entire
chapter. If you miss no more than one of these 14 self-assessment questions, you might
want to move ahead to the “Exam Preparation Tasks” section. Table 12-1 lists the major
headings in this chapter and the “Do I Know This Already?” quiz questions covering the
material in those headings so you can assess your knowledge of these specific areas. The
answers to the “Do I Know This Already?” quiz appear in Appendix A.
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332 Chapter 12: IP Addressing and Subnetting
“Do I Know This Already?” Foundation Topics Section-to-Question Mapping
Table 12-1
Foundation Topics Section Questions
Exam Preparation Tools for Subnetting None
IP Addressing and Routing 1
Math Operations Used When Subnetting 2, 3
Analyzing and Choosing Subnet Masks 4–8
Analyzing Existing Subnets 9–12
Design: Choosing the Subnets of a Classful Network 13, 14
Which of the following are private IP networks?
1.
172.31.0.0
a.
172.32.0.0
b.
192.168.255.0
c.
192.1.168.0
d.
11.0.0.0
e.
Which of the following is the result of a Boolean AND between IP address
2.
150.150.4.100 and mask 255.255.192.0?
1001 0110 1001 0110 0000 0100 0110 0100
a.
1001 0110 1001 0110 0000 0000 0000 0000
b.
1001 0110 1001 0110 0000 0100 0000 0000
c.
1001 0110 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000
d.
Which of the following shows the equivalent of subnet mask 255.255.248.0, but in
3.
prefix notation?
/248
a.
/24
b.
/28
c.
/21
d.
/20
e.
/23
f.
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“Do I Know This Already?” Quiz 333
If mask 255.255.255.128 were used with a Class B network, how many subnets could
4.
exist, with how many hosts per subnet, respectively?
256 and 256
a.
254 and 254
b.
62 and 1022
c.
1022 and 62
d.
512 and 126
e.
126 and 510
f.
A Class B network needs to be subnetted such that it supports 100 subnets and 100
5.
hosts/subnet. For this design, if multiple masks meet those design requirements, the
engineer should choose the mask that maximizes the number of hosts per subnet.
Which of the following masks meets the design criteria?
255.255.255.0
a.
/23
b.
/26
c.
255.255.252.0
d.
If mask 255.255.255.240 were used with a Class C network, how many subnets could
6.
exist, with how many hosts per subnet, respectively?
16 and 16
a.
14 and 14
b.
16 and 14
c.
8 and 32
d.
32 and 8
e.
6 and 30
f.
Which of the following subnet masks lets a Class B network have up to 150 hosts per
7.
subnet, and supports 164 subnets?
255.0.0.0
a.
255.255.0.0
b.
255.255.255.0
c.
255.255.192.0
d.
255.255.240.0
e.
255.255.252.0
f.
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334 Chapter 12: IP Addressing and Subnetting
Which of the following subnet masks let a Class A network have up to 150 hosts per
8.
subnet and supports 164 subnets?
255.0.0.0
a.
255.255.0.0
b.
255.255.255.0
c.
255.255.192.0
d.
255.255.252.0
e.
255.255.255.192
f.
Which of the following IP addresses are not in the same subnet as 190.4.80.80, mask
9.
255.255.255.0?
190.4.80.1
a.
190.4.80.50
b.
190.4.80.100
c.
190.4.80.200
d.
190.4.90.1
e.
10.1.1.1
f.
Which of the following IP addresses is not in the same subnet as 190.4.80.80, mask
10.
255.255.240.0?
190.4.80.1
a.
190.4.80.50
b.
190.4.80.100
c.
190.4.80.200
d.
190.4.90.1
e.
10.1.1.1
f.
Which of the following IP addresses are not in the same subnet as 190.4.80.80/25?
11.
190.4.80.1
a.
190.4.80.50
b.
190.4.80.100
c.
190.4.80.200
d.
190.4.90.1
e.
10.1.1.1
f.
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“Do I Know This Already?” Quiz 335
Each of the following answers lists a dotted decimal number and a subnet mask. The
12.
dotted decimal number might be a valid IP address that can be used by a host or it might
be a subnet number or broadcast address. Which of the answers show an address that
can be used by a host?
10.0.0.0, 255.0.0.0
a.
192.168.5.160, 255.255.255.192
b.
172.27.27.27, 255.255.255.252
c.
172.20.49.0, 255.255.254.0
d.
Which of the following are valid subnet numbers in network 180.1.0.0 when using
13.
mask 255.255.248.0?
180.1.2.0
a.
180.1.4.0
b.
180.1.8.0
c.
180.1.16.0
d.
180.1.32.0
e.
180.1.40.0
f.
Which of the following are not valid subnet numbers in network 180.1.0.0 when using
14.
mask 255.255.255.0?
180.2.2.0
a.
180.1.4.0
b.
180.1.8.0
c.
180.1.16.0
d.
180.1.32.0
e.
180.1.40.0
f.
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336 Chapter 12: IP Addressing and Subnetting
Foundation Topics
This chapter is fundamentally different from the other chapters in this book. Like the other
chapters, this chapter explains a related set of concepts—in this case, the concepts, thought
processes, and math used to attack IP addressing and subnetting questions on the CCNA
exams. However, more so than for any other chapter in this book, you must practice the
concepts and math in this chapter before you take the exam(s). It is very much like math
classes in school—if you do not do the homework, you probably will not do as well on
the test.
This chapter begins with a few comments about how to prepare for subnetting questions on
the exam. Then the chapter spends a few pages reviewing what has been covered already in
regard to IP addressing and routing, two topics that are tightly linked. The rest of the major
sections of the chapter tackle a particular type of subnetting question in depth, with each
section ending with a list of suggested steps to take to practice your subnetting skills.
Exam Preparation Tools for Subnetting
To help you prepare for the exam, this chapter explains the subnetting concepts and shows
multiple examples. Each section also lists the specific steps required to solve a particular
type of problem. Often, two sets of steps are provided, one that uses binary math, and
another that uses only decimal math.
More so than for any other single chapter in this book, you should also practice and review
the topics in this chapter until you have mastered the concepts. To that end, this book
includes several tools, some of which are located on the CD-ROM that comes with this
book, in addition to this chapter:
Appendix D, “Subnetting Practice”: This large appendix lists numerous practice
■
problems, with solutions that show how to use the processes explained in this chapter.
Appendix E, “Subnetting Reference Pages”: This short appendix includes a few
■
handy references, including a 1-page summary of each of the subnetting processes
listed in this chapter.
Subnetting videos (DVD): Several of the most important subnetting processes
■
described in this chapter are explained in videos on the DVD in the back of this book.
The goal of these videos is to ensure that you understand these key processes
completely, and hopefully move you quickly to the point of mastering the process.
Cisco Binary Game at the Cisco CCNA Prep Center: If you want to use the
■
processes that use binary math, you can use the Cisco Binary Game to practice your
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Exam Preparation Tools for Subnetting 337
binary-to-decimal and decimal-to-binary conversion accuracy and speed. The CCNA
Prep Center is at http://www.cisco.com/go/prepcenter. The binary game is also
included on the CD in the back of the book.
Subnetting Game at the Cisco CCNA Prep Center: As of the time of writing this
■
chapter, the CCNA Prep Center had a Beta version of the Subnetting Game available.
The game requires that you choose a mask, pick subnets, calculate the subnet number
and broadcast address of the subnets, and assign IP addresses in the subnets.
Subnetting calculators: You can make up your own practice problems, and use a
■
subnetting calculator to find the answers to check your work. This allows you to have
unlimited amounts of practice to get better and get faster. The CCNA Prep Center also
has the Cisco Subnet Calculator for free download.
Glossary: The topics of IP addressing and subnetting use a wide variety of
■
terminology. The glossary in the back of this book includes the subnetting terms used
in this book.
Suggested Subnetting Preparation Plan
Over the years, some readers have asked for a suggested subnetting study plan. At the same
time, the CCNA exam questions have been getting more difficult. To help you better
prepare, the following list outlines a suggested study plan:
Step 1 If you have not done so already, load the CD-ROM and get familiar with its user
interface, install the exam engine software, and verify that you can find the tools
listed in the preceding list. You may want to go ahead and print Appendix E, and
if you expect you will want to use a printed version of Appendix D, print that as
well (be warned, Appendix D is almost 100 pages in length).
Step 2 Keep reading this chapter through the end of the second major section,
“IP Addressing and Routing.”
Step 3 For each subsequent major section, read the section and then follow the
instructions in the subsection “Practice Suggestions.” This short part of
each major section points you to the items that would be of the most help
to stop and practice at that point. These suggestions include the use of the
tools listed earlier. The following major sections include a “Practice
Suggestions” subsection:
• Math Operations Used When Subnetting
• Analyzing and Choosing Subnet Masks
• Analyzing Existing Subnets
• Design: Choosing the Subnets of a Classful Network
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338 Chapter 12: IP Addressing and Subnetting
Step 4 When finished with the chapter, if you feel the need for more practice,
make up your own practice problems, and check your answers using a
subnet calculator (more information is provided after this list). I
recommend the Cisco Subnet Calculator because its user interface
displays the information in a convenient format for doing extra questions.
Step 5 At any point in your study, feel free to visit the CCNA Prep Center
(http://www.cisco.com/go/prepcenter) to use both the Cisco Binary
Game and the Subnetting Game. Both help you build skills for doing
subnetting problems. (The CCNA Prep Center requires you to log in with
a Cisco.com User ID; if you do not have one, the preceding URL has a
link to Cisco.com registration.) Once in the CCNA Prep Center, you can
find the games under the Additional Information tab.
You can certainly deviate from this plan to suit your personal preferences, but at the end of
this process, you should be able to confidently answer straightforward subnetting questions,
such as those in Appendix D. In fact, you should be able to answer in 10–12 seconds a
straightforward question such as, “In what subnet does IP address 10.143.254.17, with
mask 255.255.224.0, reside?” That is a subjective time period, based on my experience
teaching classes, but the point is that you need to understand it all, and practice to the point
of being pretty fast.
However, perfecting your subnetting math skills is not enough. The exams ask questions
that require you to prove you have the skills to attack real-life problems, problems such as
how to design an IP network by subnetting a classful network, how to determine all the
subnets of a classful network, and how to pick subnets to use in an internetwork design. The
wording of the exam problems, in some cases, is similar to that of the math word problems
back in school—many people have trouble translating the written words into a math
problem that can be worked. Likewise, the exam questions may well present a scenario, and
then leave it to you to figure out what subnetting math is required to find the answer.
To prepare for these skills-based questions, Chapter 15, “Troubleshooting IP Routing,”
covers a wide variety of topics that help you analyze a network to solve subnetting-related
problems. These extra tips help you sift through the wording in problems, and tell you how
to approach the problems, so that you can then find the answers. So, in addition to this
chapter, read through Chapter 15 as well, which includes coverage of tips for
troubleshooting IP addressing problems.
More Practice Using a Subnet Calculator
If you want even more practice, you can essentially get unlimited practice using a subnet
calculator. For the purpose of CCNA study, I particularly like the Cisco Subnet Calculator,
which can be downloaded from the Cisco CCNA Prep Center. You can then make up your
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IP Addressing and Routing 339
own problems like those found in this chapter, work the problem, and then check your work
using the calculator.
For example, you could pick an IP network and mask. Then, you could find all subnets of
that network, using that single mask. To check your work, you could type in the network
number and mask in the Cisco Subnet Calculator, and click the Subnets/hosts tab, which
then displays all the subnet numbers, from which you can check your answers. As another
example, you could pick an IP address and mask, try to find the subnet number, broadcast
address, and range of addresses, and then check your work with the calculator using the
Subnet tab. After you have typed the IP address and mask, this tab displays the subnet
number, broadcast address, and range of usable addresses. And yet another example: You
can even choose an IP address and mask, and try to find the number of network, subnet, and
host bits—and again check your work with the calculator. In this case, the calculator even
uses the same format as this chapter to represent the mask, with N, S, and H for the network,
subnet, and host parts of the address.
Now that you have a study plan, the next section briefly reviews the core IP addressing and
routing concepts covered previously in Chapter 5. Following that, four major sections
describe the various details of IP addressing and subnetting.
IP Addressing and Routing
This section primarily reviews the addressing and routing concepts found in earlier chapters
of this book, particularly in Chapter 5. It also briefly introduces IP Version 6 (IPv6)
addressing and the concept of private IP networks.
IP Addressing Review
The vast majority of IP networks today use a version of the IP protocol called IP Version 4
(IPv4). Rather than refer to it as IPv4, most texts, this one included, simply refer to it as IP.
This section reviews IPv4 addressing concepts as introduced in Chapter 5.
Many different Class A, B, and C networks exist. Table 12-2 summarizes the possible
network numbers, the total number of each type, and the number of hosts in each Class A,
B, and C network.
NOTE In Table 12-2, the “Valid Network Numbers” row shows actual network
numbers. There are several reserved cases. For example, network 0.0.0.0 (originally
defined for use as a broadcast address) and network 127.0.0.0 (still available for use as
the loopback address) are reserved.
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340 Chapter 12: IP Addressing and Subnetting
List of All Possible Valid Network Numbers
Table 12-2
Class A Class B Class C
First Octet Range 1 to 126 128 to 191 192 to 223
Valid Network Numbers 1.0.0.0 to 128.0.0.0 to 192.0.0.0 to
126.0.0.0 191.255.0.0 223.255.255.0
27 – 2 214 221
Number of Networks in This Class
224 – 2 216 – 2 28 – 2
Number of Hosts Per Network
Size of Network Part of Address (Bytes) 1 2 3
Size of Host Part of Address (Bytes) 3 2 1
NOTE This chapter uses the term network to refer to a classful network—in other
words, a Class A, B, or C network. This chapter also uses the term subnet to refer to
smaller parts of a classful network. However, note that many people use these terms more
loosely, interchanging the words network and subnet, which is fine for general
conversation, but can be problematic when trying to be exact.
Figure 12-1 shows the structure of three IP addresses, each from a different network, when
no subnetting is used. One address is in a Class A network, one is in a Class B network, and
one is in a Class C network.
Class A, B, and C IP Addresses and Their Formats
Figure 12-1
Network
Class A Host (24)
(8)
. .
8 .
1 4 5
Network (16) Host (16)
Class B
. . 1
130 100
4 .
Class C Network (24) Host (8)
. 1 . .
1 1
199
By definition, an IP address that begins with 8 in the first octet is in a Class A network, so
the network part of the address is the first byte, or first octet. An address that begins
with 130 is in a Class B network. By definition, Class B addresses have a 2-byte network
part, as shown. Finally, any address that begins with 199 is in a Class C network, which has
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IP Addressing and Routing 341
a 3-byte network part. Also by definition, a Class A address has a 3-byte host part, Class B
has a 2-byte host part, and Class C has a 1-byte host part.
Humans can simply remember the numbers in Table 12-2 and the concepts in Figure 12-1
and then quickly determine the network and host parts of an IP address. Computers,
however, use a mask to define the size of the network and the host parts of an address. The
logic behind the mask results in the same conventions of Class A, B, and C networks that
you already know, but the computer can deal with it better as a binary math problem.
The mask is a 32-bit binary number, usually written in dotted decimal format. The purpose
of the mask is to define the structure of an IP address. In short, the mask defines the size
of the host part of an IP address, representing the host part of the IP address with binary 0s
in the mask. The first part of the mask contains binary 1s, which represents the network
part of the addresses (if no subnetting is used), or both the network and subnet parts of the
addresses (if subnetting is used).
When subnetting is not used, each class of IP address uses the default mask for that class.
For example, the default Class A mask ends with 24 bits of binary 0s, which means that
the last three octets of the mask are 0s, representing the 3-byte host part of Class A
addresses. Table 12-3 summarizes the default masks and reflects the sizes of the two parts
of an IP address.
Class A, B, and C Networks: Network and Host Parts and Default Masks
Table 12-3
Class of Size of Network Part of Size of Host Part of Default Mask for Each
Address Address in Bits Address in Bits Class of Network
A 8 24 255.0.0.0
B 16 16 255.255.0.0
C 24 8 255.255.255.0
Public and Private Addressing
The ICANN (formerly IANA) and its member organizations manage the process of
assigning IP network numbers, or even smaller ranges of IP addresses, to companies that
want to connect to the Internet. After a company is assigned a range of IP addresses, only
that company can use that range. Additionally, the routers in the Internet can then learn
routes to reach these networks, so that everyone in the entire Internet can forward packets
to that IP network. Because these IP addresses can be reached by packets in the public
Internet, these networks are often called public networks, and the addresses in these
networks are called public addresses.
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342 Chapter 12: IP Addressing and Subnetting
Some computers will never be connected to the Internet. So, engineers building a network
consisting of only such computers could use IP addresses that are duplicates of registered
public IP addresses in the Internet. So, when designing the IP addressing convention for
such a network, an organization could pick and use any network number(s) that it wanted,
and all would be well. For instance, you can buy a few routers, connect them together in
your office, and configure IP addresses in network 1.0.0.0 and make it work, even though
some company also uses Class A network 1 as its registered public IP network. The IP
addresses that you use might be duplicates of real IP addresses in the Internet, but if all you
want to do is learn on the lab in your office, all is well.
However, using the same IP addresses used by another company is unnecessary in this
situation, because TCP/IP RFC 1918 defines a set of private networks that can be used for
internetworks that do not connect to the Internet. More importantly, this set of private
networks will never be assigned by ICANN to any organization for use as registered public
network numbers. So, when building a private network, like one in a lab, you can use
numbers in a range that is not used by anyone in the public Internet. Table 12-4 shows the
private address space defined by RFC 1918.
RFC 1918 Private Address Space
Table 12-4
Private IP Networks Class of Networks Number of Networks
10.0.0.0 through 10.0.0.0 A 1
172.16.0.0 through 172.31.0.0 B 16
192.168.0.0 through 192.168.255.0 C 256
In other words, any organization can use these network numbers. However, no organization
is allowed to advertise these networks using a routing protocol on the Internet.
Many of you might be wondering, “Why bother reserving special private network numbers
when it does not matter whether the addresses are duplicates?” Well, as it turns out, private
networks can be used inside a company and that company can still connect to the Internet
today, using a function called Network Address Translation (NAT). Chapter 16, “WAN
Concepts,” and Chapter 17, “WAN Configuration,” expand on the concepts of NAT and
private addressing, and how the two work together.
IP Version 6 Addressing
IPv6 defines many improvements over IPv4. However, the primary goal of IPv6 is to
significantly increase the number of available IP addresses. To that end, IPv6 uses a 128-bit
IP address, rather than the 32 bits defined by IPv4. To appreciate the size of the address
structure, a 128-bit address structure provides well over 1038 possible IP addresses. If you
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IP Addressing and Routing 343
consider the fact that the Earth currently has less than 1010 people, you can see that you
could have literally billions, trillions, or gazillions of IP addresses per person and still not
run out.
NOTE In case you are wondering, IP Version 5 was defined for experimental reasons
but was never deployed. To avoid confusion, the next attempt to update the IP protocol
was named IPv6.
IPv6 has been defined since the mid-1990s, but the migration from IPv4 to IPv6 has been
rather slow. IPv6 was created to solve an overcrowding problem in the IPv4 address space.
Some other short-term solutions in IPv4 (notably, NAT, as covered in Chapter 16) helped
relieve the IPv4 overcrowding. However, in 2007, IPv6 deployment has started to quicken.
Many large service providers have migrated to IPv6 to support the large number of mobile
devices that can connect to the Internet, and the U.S. government has mandated migration
to IPv6 for its member agencies.
The 128-bit IPv6 address is written in hexadecimal notation, with colons between each
quartet of symbols. Even in hexadecimal, the addresses can be long. However, IPv6 also
allows for abbreviations, as is shown in Table 12-5. The table also summarizes some of the
pertinent information comparing IPv4 addresses with IPv6.
IPv4 Versus IPv6
Table 12-5
Feature IPv4 IPv6
Size of address (bits or bytes 32 bits, 4 octets 128 bits, 16 octets
per octets)
Example address 10.1.1.1 0000:0000:0000:0000:FFFF:FFFF:0A01:0101
Same address, abbreviated — ::FFFF:FFFF:0A01:0101
232, (roughly 4 2128, or roughly 3.4 × 1038
Number of possible addresses,
ignoring reserved values billion)
IP Subnetting Review
IP subnetting creates larger numbers of smaller groups of IP addresses compared with
simply using Class A, B, and C conventions. You can still think about the Class A, B, and
C rules, but now a single Class A, B, or C network can be subdivided into many smaller
groups. Subnetting treats a subdivision of a single Class A, B, or C network as if it were a
network itself. By doing so, a single Class A, B, or C network can be subdivided into many
nonoverlapping subnets.
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344 Chapter 12: IP Addressing and Subnetting
Figure 12-2 shows a reminder of the basics of how to subnet a classful network, using the
same internetwork shown in Figure 5-6 in Chapter 5. This figure shows Class B network
150.150.0.0, with a need for six subnets.
Same Network Topology Using One IP Network with Six Subnets
Figure 12-2
150.150.1.0 150.150.2.0
Ray Hannah
150.150.1.1 150.150.2.1
A B
S0/0
Fay Jessie
150.150.1.2 150.150.2.2
Frame Relay
150.150.5.0
150.150.5.3
150.150.6.0
C
D
150.150.4.0
150.150.3.0
Kris Wendell Vinnie
150.150.4.2 150.150.4.1 150.150.3.1
NOTE The term network might be used to refer to a Class A, B, or C IP network, or
might be used to simply refer to a collection of switches, routers, cables, and end-user
devices. To avoid confusion, this chapter uses the term internetwork to refer to the
collection of networking devices (internetwork meaning “interconnected networks”), and
the term network specifically for a Class A, B, or C IP network.
This design subnets Class B network 150.150.0.0. The IP network designer has chosen a
mask of 255.255.255.0, the last octet of which implies 8 host bits. Because it is a Class B
network, there are 16 network bits. Therefore, there are 8 subnet bits, which happen to be
bits 17 through 24—in other words, the third octet.
NOTE Note that the next major section explains the use and purpose of subnet masks,
so do not be concerned at this point if the analysis in this paragraph does not yet make
sense.
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IP Addressing and Routing 345
The network parts (the first two octets in this example) all begin with 150.150, meaning that
each of the six subnets is a subnet of Class B network 150.150.0.0.
With subnetting, the third part of an IP address—namely, the subnet part—appears in the
middle of the address. This field is created by “stealing” or “borrowing” bits from the host
part of the address. The size of the network part of the address never shrinks. In other words,
Class A, B, and C rules still apply when you define the size of the network part of an
address. However, the host part of the address shrinks to make room for the subnet part of
the address. Figure 12-3 shows the format of addresses when subnetting is used.
Address Formats When Subnetting Is Used
Figure 12-3
8 24 – x x
Network Subnet Host Class A
16 16 – x x
Network Subnet Host Class B
24 8–x x
Network Subnet Host Class C
IP Routing Review
IP routing and IP addressing were designed with each other in mind. IP routing presumes
the structure of IP subnetting, in which ranges of consecutive IP addresses reside in a single
subnet. IP addressing RFCs define subnetting so that consecutively numbered IP addresses
can be represented as a subnet number (subnet address) and a subnet mask. This allows
routers to succinctly list subnets in their routing tables.
Routers need a good way to list the subnet number in their routing tables. This information
must somehow imply the IP addresses in the subnet. For example, the subnet at the bottom
of figure 12-2, which contains host Kris, can be described as follows:
All IP addresses that begin with 150.150.4; more specifically, the numbers 150.150.4.0
through 150.150.4.255.
Although true, the preceding statement is not very succinct. Instead, a router’s routing table
would list the subnet number and subnet mask as follows:
150.150.4.0, 255.255.255.0
The subnet number and mask together means the same thing as the earlier long text
statement, but just using numbers. This chapter explains how to examine a subnet number
and mask and figure out the range of consecutive IP addresses that comprises the subnet.
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346 Chapter 12: IP Addressing and Subnetting
One reason you need to be able to figure out the range of addresses in a subnet is to
understand, analyze, and troubleshoot routing problems. To see why, again consider router
A’s route for subnet 150.150.4.0, 255.255.255.0 in Figure 12-2. Each route in a router’s
routing table lists the destination (a subnet number and mask), plus instructions on how the
router should forward packets to that subnet. The forwarding instructions typically include
the IP address of the next router to which the packet should be forwarded, and the local
router’s interface to use when forwarding the packet. For example, router A’s route to that
subnet would look like the information in Table 12-6.
Routing Table Entry in Router A
Table 12-6
Subnet and Mask Next-hop Router Outgoing Interface
150.150.4.0, 255.255.255.0 150.150.5.3 S0/0
Now, to see how this information is related to subnetting, consider a packet sent by Ray to
Kris (150.150.4.2). Ray sends the packet to router A because Ray knows that 150.150.4.2
is in a different subnet, and Ray knows that router A is Ray’s default gateway. Once
router A has the packet, it compares the destination IP address (150.150.4.2) to A’s routing
table. Router A typically will not find the address 150.150.4.2 in the routing table—instead,
the router has a list of subnets (subnet numbers and corresponding subnet masks), like the
route listed in Table 12-6. So, the router must ask itself the following:
Of the subnets in my routing table, which subnet’s range of IP addresses includes the
destination IP address of this packet?
In other words, the router must match the packet’s destination address to the correct subnet.
In this case, the subnet listed in Table 12-6 includes all addresses that begin with 150.150.4,
so the packet destined to Kris (150.150.4.2) matches the route. In this case, router A
forwards the packet to router C (150.150.5.3), with router A using its S0/0 interface to
forward the packet.
NOTE The exams might expect you to apply this knowledge to solve a routing problem.
For example, you might be asked to determine why PC1 cannot ping PC2, and the
problem is that the second of three routers between PC1 and PC2 does not have a route
that matches the destination IP address of PC2.
This chapter explains many features of IP addressing and subnetting, as an end to itself. The
next section focuses on some basic math tools. The section following that, “Analyzing and
Choosing Subnet Masks,” examines the meaning of the subnet mask and how it represents
the structure of an IP address—both from a design perspective and the perspective of
analyzing an existing internetwork. Following that, the next section, “Analyzing Existing
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Math Operations Used When Subnetting 347
Subnets,” explains the processes by which you can analyze an existing IP internetwork, and
find the subnet numbers, broadcast addresses, and range of IP addresses in each subnet.
Finally, the last section, “Design: Choosing the Subnets of a Classful Network,” explains
how to go about designing a subnetting scheme for a Class A, B, or C network, including
how to find all possible subnets.
Math Operations Used When Subnetting
Computers, especially routers, think about IP addresses in terms of 32-bit binary numbers.
This is fine, because technically that is what IP addresses are. Also, computers use a subnet
mask to define the structure of these binary IP addresses. Acquiring a full understanding of
what this means is not too difficult with a little reading and practice. However, getting
accustomed to doing the binary math in your head can be challenging, particularly if you
do not do it every day.
In this section, you will read about three key math operations that will be used throughout
the discussion of answering CCNA addressing and subnetting questions:
Converting IP addresses and masks from binary to decimal, and decimal to binary
■
Performing a binary math operation called a Boolean AND
■
Converting between two formats for subnet masks: dotted decimal and prefix notation
■
NOTE This chapter includes many summarized processes of how to do some work with
IP addresses and subnets. There is no need to memorize the processes. Most people find
that after practicing the processes sufficiently to get good and fast enough to do well on
the exams, they internalize and memorize the important steps as a side effect of the
practice.
Converting IP Addresses and Masks from Decimal to Binary
and Back Again
If you already know how binary works, how binary-to-decimal and decimal-to-binary
conversion work, and how to convert IP addresses and masks from decimal to binary and
back, skip to the next section, “Performing a Boolean AND Operation.”
IP addresses are 32-bit binary numbers written as a series of decimal numbers separated by
periods (called dotted decimal format). To examine an address in its true form, binary, you
need to convert from decimal to binary. To put a 32-bit binary number in the decimal form
that is needed when configuring a router, you need to convert the 32-bit number back to
decimal 8 bits at a time.
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348 Chapter 12: IP Addressing and Subnetting
One key to the conversion process for IP addresses is remembering these facts:
When you convert from one format to the other, each decimal number represents 8 bits.
When you convert from decimal to binary, each decimal number converts to an 8-bit
number.
When you convert from binary to decimal, each set of 8 consecutive bits converts to
one decimal number.
Consider the conversion of IP address 150.150.2.1 to binary. The number 150, when
converted to its 8-bit binary equivalent, is 10010110. (You can refer to the conversion chart
in Appendix B, “Decimal to Binary Conversion Table,” to easily convert the numbers.) The
next byte, another decimal 150, is converted to 10010110. The third byte, decimal 2, is
converted to 00000010. Finally, the fourth byte, decimal 1, is converted to 00000001. The
combined series of 8-bit numbers is the 32-bit IP address—in this case, 10010110
10010110 00000010 00000001.
If you start with the binary version of the IP address, you first separate it into four sets of
eight digits. Then you convert each set of eight binary digits to its decimal equivalent. For
example, writing an IP address as follows is correct, but not very useful:
10010110100101100000001000000001
To convert this number to a more-convenient decimal form, first separate it into four sets of
eight digits:
10010110 10010110 00000010 00000001
Then look in the conversion chart in Appendix B. You see that the first 8-bit number
converts to 150, and so does the second. The third set of 8 bits converts to 2, and the fourth
converts to 1, giving you 150.150.2.1.
Using the chart in Appendix B makes this much easier, but you will not have the chart at
the exam, of course! So, you have two main options. First, you can learn and practice how
to do the conversion. This may not be as hard as it might seem at first, particularly if you
are willing to practice. The Cisco CCNA Prep Center has a Binary Game that helps you
practice the conversions, and its very effective. The second option is to use the decimal-
math-only processes listed in this chapter, which removes the need to be good at doing the
conversions. However, you do not need to decide right now whether to get really good at
doing the conversions—keep reading, understand both methods, and then pick which way
works best for you.
nguon tai.lieu . vn
