IMPACT OF MINING SECTOR INVESTMENT IN GHANA: A STUDY OF THE TARKWA MINING REGION

IMPACT OF MINING SECTOR INVESTMENT IN GHANA: A STUDY OF THE TARKWA MINING REGION (A DRAFT REPORT) PREPARED BY Thomas Akabzaa and Abdulai Darimani FOR SAPRI January 20, 2001 TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................................................0 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY.....................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined. 1.0: INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................................................3 1.2 Objective of the Study:...................................................................................................................................5 1.3 Methodology....................................................................................................................................................5 1.4 Structure of the Report ...................................................................................................................................6 2.0: DEVELOPMENTS IN GHANA’S MINERAL INDUSTRY.....................................................................7 2.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................................................7 2.2 Pre-Independence period...............................................................................................................................7 2.3 Post-Independence period up to 1986........................................................................................................10 2.4 Post-1986 Mineral Industry.........................................................................................................................13 3.0: POLICY CHANGES IN THE MINING SECTOR UNDER SAP...........................................................17 3.1 Introduction:...................................................................................................................................................17 3.2 Overview of the ERP/SAP..........................................................................................................................17 3.3 Mining Sector Reforms ................................................................................................................................18 3.3.1 Mining Sector Legislation Reforms and Fiscal Liberalisation.....................................................19 3.3.1.1 Concessions Granted Investors under the Minerals and Mining Law....................................20 3.3.2 Restructuring of Governmental Mining Sector Support Institutions........................................21 4.0 STRUCTURE OF THE MINING INDUSTRY IN GHANA....................................................................23 4.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................................23 4.2 Large-Scale Mining......................................................................................................................................23 4.2.1 Major Mining Companies...................................................................................................................23 4.2.2 OWNERSHIP STRUCTURE OF LARGE MINING COMPANIES.........................................25 4.3 Small-Scale Mining Sector..........................................................................................................................25 4.4 Public Sector Mining Industry Support Organizations...........................................................................27 5.0 THE STUDY AREA.........................................................................................................................................29 6.0 IMPACT OF MINING ON THE AREA.......................................................................................................34 6.1 INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................................34 6.1.2 The Evolution of Environmental Regulations -- 1983 to 1999....................................................35 6.1.3 Inadequate Capacity of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).......................................36 6.1.4 Lack of Coordination among Mining Sector Institutions..............................................................36 6.1.5 Weaknesses of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA).....................................................37 6.2 Economic And Social Impact......................................................................................................................38 6.2.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................................................38 6.2 2. ECONOMIC IMPACT .......................................................................................................................39 6.2.2.1.1 FOREIGN EXCHANGE GENERATION..........................................................................39 6.2.2.1.2 GENERATION OF GOVERNMENT REVENUE...........................................................40 6.2.2.1.3 GENERATION OF EMPLOYMENT......................................................................................41 6.2.2.2.1 FOREIGN EXCHANGE AND GOVERNMENT REVENUE GENERATION..........42 6.2.2.2.2 GENERATION OF EMPLOYMENT..................................................................................42 6.2.3 SOCIAL IMPACT ...............................................................................................................................43 6.2.3.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................................43 6.2.3.2 Inadequate Housing.........................................................................................................................44 6.2.3.3 6.2.3.4 6.2.3.5 6.2.3.6 6.2.3.6 Prostitution........................................................................................................................................44 Family Disorganisation...................................................................................................................45 Unemployment.................................................................................................................................45 Drug Abuse.......................................................................................................................................46 High Cost of living..........................................................................................................................46 1 6.3 ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH IMPACT ....................................................................................47 6.3.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................................................47 6.3.2 6.3.3 6.3.3.1 Land and Vegetation Degradation.....................................................................................................47 Water Pollution.....................................................................................................................................48 Chemical Pollution...............................................................................................................................48 6.3.3.2 Dewatering Effects..........................................................................................................................54 6.3.4 Air and Noise Pollution.......................................................................................................................55 6.3.4.1 Airborne Particulate Matter............................................................................................................55 6.3.4.2 Noise and Vibration.........................................................................................................................58 6.4 HEALTH IMPACT ......................................................................................................................................60 PNEUMONIA ..................................................................................................................................................60 6.4.1 Malaria ...................................................................................................................................................61 6.4.2 Skin Diseases.........................................................................................................................................62 6.4.3 Other Diseases ......................................................................................................................................62 7.0 IMPACT OF MINING SECTOR INVESTMENT ON WOMEN ...........................................................63 7.2 Women and Large-Scale Mining......................................................................................................................63 7.2.1 Women, Employment and other Mining-Related Economic Activity........................................64 7.2.2 Women, Relocation, Resettlement and Compensation Policies..................................................64 7.3 Small-Scale Mining And Women...................................................................................................................65 2 1.0: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background: The resurgence in the mining industry in Ghana since 1989 cannot be considered an isolated phenomenon. It is driven by the global paradigm which emphasises private sector-led development as the engine of economic recovery in developing countries. This is indeed the thrust of the structural adjustment programmes (SAP) prescribed for such developing countries by the World Bank and allied institutions since the early 1980s. In these economic programmes, African countries with important mining sectors were obliged to shift their policy emphasis towards a primary objective of maximising tax revenue from mining over the long term (which remains largely a mirage), rather than pursuing other economic or political objectives such as control of resources or enhancement of employment. According to the World Bank, this primary objective could only be achieved by a new division of labour whereby governments focus on industry regulation and promotion while private companies take the lead in operating, managing and owning mineral enterprises.1 Many of the 16 countries identified by the Bank to be given priority for exploration and private mining investment were from sub-Saharan Africa, obviously because the region is an important supplier of a variety of minerals to the world. It accounts for about 8 % of world mine production. It holds more than 10 % market share in six minerals -- bauxite, cobalt, manganese, rutile and uranium -- and a 37 % share of world diamond production. By the close of 1999, nearly all African countries, some of them without known mineral resources, had either modified their minerals codes or introduced them where they did not exist before. Ghana, long regarded as the African trailblazer, was an obvious laboratory for these reforms. After all, a comparative geological ranking of African countries placed Ghana third after South Africa and Zimbabwe2. Ghana was, therefore, among the first sub-Saharan countries to embark on these prescribed reforms and its mining sector received priority attention in the country’s Economic Recovery Programme launched in 1983. Between 1984 and 1995, there were significant institutional development and policy changes to reflect the new paradigm, from the establishment of the Minerals Commission in 1984 and the promulgation of the Minerals and Mining Code in 1986 to the promulgation of the Small-Scale Mining Law in 1989 and the establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency in 1994. The historical importance of mining in the economic development of Ghana is considerable and well documented, with the country’s colonial name -- Gold Coast --reflecting the importance of the mining sector. Gold dominates the mining sector and 1 THE WORLD BANK. 1992, Strategy for African Mining. World Bank Technical Paper No.181, African Technical Department series. 2 Laura Irvine, 1991, Euromoney, September. 3 Ghana is Africa’s second most important producer of gold after South Africa, the third largest producer of manganese and aluminium and a significant producer of bauxite and diamonds3. In addition, inventories of iron, limestone, kaolin, salt and other industrial mineral resources exist but ae not exploited on a large scale. From the inception of Ghana’s economic policy changes in 1983 to date, the mining sector has witnessed a considerable investment boom and increased production, particularly in the gold sector. There has been considerable growth in the number of new mines and exploration companies. The sector has also attracted a significant number of sector support companies such as catering and transport companies, explosive manufacturers, mineral assay laboratories, etc. The sector has increased its contribution to gross foreign exchange earnings and appears to have attracted substantial foreign direct investment funds over the years. By the end of 1999, the sector had attracted over US$3 billion worth of foreign direct investment. Ghana now has 19 operating mines and over 128 local and foreign companies with exploration licences, mainly in the domain of gold. The sector now accounts for more than 30% of gross foreign exchange earnings. In 1997, officially reported output of newly mined gold was 54.4 metric tons with a market value of about $545 million. Despite this boom, there is growing unease with regard to the real benefits accruing to the ordinary Ghanaian in the mining communities and to the country as a whole, in the light of the extremely generous fiscal and other incentives given to mining companies under the mining sector reforms. As observed by Patricia Feeney, the World Bank strategy is surprisingly silent on measures that might be required to protect the rights of vulnerable segments of the society during the economic transition4. Ghana’s structural adjustment programme generally generated considerable social costs and had considerable negative impact especially on the most vulnerable segments of the society (the rural poor, women and children). It has been suggested that a thorough cost/benefit analysis of the resurgent mining sector would probably return a negative figure. This is because of such factors as the high level of fiscal incentives enjoyed by mining companies and the high level of foreign exchange earnings they are allowed to retain in offshore accounts. Other relevant factors include the negative environmental impact of mining and the growing redundancies associated with the privatisation of state-owned mining companies. Thus, the growing incidence of conflict between mining communities and their chiefs on one hand and mining companies on the other hand echoes the growing disquiet about the effects of the mining sector-led structural adjustment programme on the population. 3 GEORGE J. COAKLEY, 1999, The minerals industry of Ghana, in the US Department of the Interior, US Geological Survey, Minerals Yearbook. Area Reports: International 1997, Africa and the Middle East Volume III. 4 Patricia Feeney, 1998, The Human Rights Implications of Zambia’s Privatisation Programme. 4 ... - tailieumienphi.vn