HYDROPOWER IN NORWAY Mechanical Equipment

HYDROPOWER IN NORWAY Mechanical Equipment A survey prepared by Arne Kjølle Professor Emeritus Norwegian University of Science and Technology Trondheim, December 2001 I CONTENTS Preface Page VIII CHAPTER 1 Hydropower Machinery Page Introduction 1.1 1.1 Brief review of hydropower machines 1.2 1.1.1 The eldest hydropower machines 1.2 1.1.2 Turbines 1.3 1.2 Arrangement of hydropower plants 1.5 References 1.7 CHAPTER 2 Energy Conversion Page Introduction 2.1 2.1 Fundamentals and definitions 2.1 2.2 Transforming hydraulic energy into mechanical energy 2.2 2.2.1 General considerations 2.2 2.2.2 Impulse turbine - Pelton 2.3 2.2.3 Reaction turbines 2.6 2.2.4 The main equation of turbines 2.12 2.3 A brief outline of the hydraulic design of turbines 2.13 2.4 Efficiency 2.16 References 2.17 Bibliography 2.17 CHAPTER 3 Classification of Turbines - Main Characteristics Page Introduction 3.1 3.1 Fundamental similarity considerations 3.1 3.1.1 Similarity relations 3.1 3.1.2 Speed number 3.3 3.1.3 Classification of turbines 3.4 3.1.4 Performance characteristics 3.5 3.1.5 Cavitation and suction head 3.8 3.2 Pelton turbines 3.9 3.2.1 Main hydraulic dimensions 3.9 3.2.2 Pelton bucket dimensions 3.10 3.2.3 Performance diagram 3.10 3.3 Francis turbines 3.11 3.3.1 Main hydraulic dimensions 3.11 3.3.2 Performance diagrams 3.11 3.3.3 Cavitation, suction head and reaction ratio 3.13 3.4 Kaplan turbines 3.14 3.4.1 Main hydraulic dimensions 3.14 II Classification of turbines - Main Characteristics Page (Cont.) 3.4.2 Performance diagram 3.15 3.4.3 Cavitation, suction head and reaction ratio 3.16 3.5 Choice of turbine 3.16 3.5.1 Choice between Pelton and Francis turbines 3.16 3.5.2 Choice between Francis and Kaplan turbines 3.20 References 3.20 Bibliography 3.21 CHAPTER 4 Governing Principles Page Introduction 4.1 4.1 Feedback control system 4.2 4.2 Governor adjustment facilities 4.4 4.2.1 Proporsjonal-integral-derivative funtions (PID) 4.4 4.2.2 Permanent speed droop 4.4 4.3 Turbine governing demands 4.5 4.3.1 Frequency and load regulation 4.5 4.3.2 Start and stop sequence control 4.5 4.3.3 Disconnection, load rejection 4.6 4.3.4 Load limiting 4.6 4.4 Regulation requirements of water power plants 4.6 4.4.1 Mass oscillation 4.6 4.4.2 Water hammer pressure rise versus closure time and speed 4.8 4.5 Governing stability 4.13 4.5.1 Modes of operation 4.13 4.5.2 Rules of thumb 4.14 References 4.15 Bibliography 4.15 CHAPTER 5 Performance Tests Page Introduction 5.1 5.1 Tests on prototype 5.1 5.1.1 Principles for test 5.1 5.1.2 Measurement of the turbine power 5.2 5.1.3 Methods for determination of discharge 5.2 5.1.3.1 Current meter method 5.2 5.1.3.2 Pitot tube gauging 5.3 5.1.3.3 The pressure-time method (Gibson method) 5.4 5.1.3.4 Tracer methods 5.5 5.1.3.5 Ultrasonic method 5.7 5.1.3.6 Weirs 5.9 5.1.3.7 Standardised differential pressure devices 5.10 5.1.3.8 Volumetric gauging method 5.11 5.1.3.9 Relative discharge measurement 5.11 III Performance Tests (Cont.) 5.1.4 Thermodynamic measurement of flow losses 5.1.4.1 Measurement of power losses 5.1.4.2 Efficiency and specific energies 5.1.4.3 Measuring technique 5.1.4.4 Corrections for leakage and friction 5.1.5 Dynamic properties of the turbines 5.1.6 Cavitation behaviour of prototype 5.1.7 Governor test - Rejection tests 5.2 Model tests and scale effect of effiency from model to prototype 5.2.1 Laboratory qualifications 5.2.2 Model tests 5.2.3 Scale effect on efficiency from model to prototype References Bibliography CHAPTER 6 Pelton Turbines Introduction 6.1 Horizontal Pelton turbine arrangement 6.2 Vertical Pelton turbine arrangement 6.3 Main components and their functions 6.3.1 Runner 6.2.2 The turbine shaft 6.2.3 Turbine radial bearing 6.2.4 Bend and distributor 6.2.5 Straight flow injector 6.2.6 Deflector mechanism 6.2.7 Turbine housing 6.3 Condition control 6.3.1 Turbine guide bearing 6.3.2 Runner 6.3.3 Main injector with needle servomotor 6.3.4 Seal ring in deflector bearing 6.3.5 Filter 6.4 Monitoring instruments 6.5 Assembly and dismantling Reference Bibliography CHAPTER 7 Francis Turbines Introduction 7.1 Horizontal Francis turbine 7.2 Vertical Francis turbine 7.3 Main components and their functions 7.3.1 Scroll casing Page 5.12 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.16 5.16 5.16 5.17 5.17 5.17 5.18 5.20 5.21 5.22 Page 6.1 6.1 6.2 6.4 6.4 6.6 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.10 6.10 6.11 6.11 6.11 6.11 6.11 6.12 6.12 6.12 Page 7.1 7.1 7.2 7.4 7.4 IV Francis Turbines (Cont.) 7.3.2 Guide vane cascade 7.3.3 Turbine covers 7.3.4 Runner 7.3.5 Turbine shaft and bearing 7.3.6 Shaft seal 7.3.7 Regulating mechanism 7.3.8 Draft tube 7.4 Drainage and filling system 7.5 Contition control 7.6 Monitoring instruments 7.7 Assembly and dismantling References Bibliography CHAPTER 8 Kaplan Turbines Introduction 8.1 Kaplan turbine construction 8.1.1 Arrangement 8.1.2 Kaplan turbine construction 8.2 Main components and their functions 8.2.1 Scroll casing 8.2.2 The guide vane cascade 8.2.3 Covers 8.2.4 Runner 8.2.5 Runner blade servomotor 8.2.6 Regulating mechanism of the runner blades 8.2.7 Cooperation of the regulation of the guide vanes and the runner blades 8.2.8 Runner chamber 8.2.9 Turbine shaft 8.2.10 Turbine bearing 8.2.11 Shaft seal box 8.2.12 Draft tube 8.3 Drainage and filling arrangement 8.4 Condition control 8.4.1 Runner 8.4.2 Runner chamber 8.4.3 Guide vane mechanism 8.4.4 Shaft seal box 8.5 Monitoring instruments 8.6 Assembly and dismantling References Bibliography Page 7.4 7.5 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.9 7.10 7.11 7.11 7.12 7.12 Page 8.1 8.1 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.3 8.4 8.4 8.4 8.5 8.5 8.6 8.6 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.9 8.9 8.9 8.9 8.9 8.9 8.10 8.10 8.10 ... - 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