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SECTION 3: GRAMMATICAL RELATIONS 18 Structure
“The concept of STRUCTURE is essential in distinguishing between the strings of words that are well-formed expressions in the language and those that are not.” [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 8] To show how things can
be analyzed into their constituent parts in this text, we use TREE-DIAGRAMS — the trees that are upside-down:
S
NP VP
DET N’
DEM headN
These concepts
Vgrp [intens]
are
AP[sP/sC]
A
basic.
This does not prevent us from having a quick look at some other common types of diagrams:
Fries’ diagrams (also called UPSIDEDOWN-T DIAGRAMS) in
Stageberg [1965] and Barsova et al [1969]:
These concepts are basic
Candelabra’s diagrams in Barsova et al [1969]: these concepts are basic
Reed and Kellogg’s diagrams in House and Harman [1965]: concepts are
these basic _________________
19 Endocentric structures vs. exocentric structures
19.1 ENDOCENTRIC STRUCTURE
Phrases like the NOUN PHRASE (NP, for short) their rather dubious
jokes are said to be ENDOCENTRIC. “An endocentric construction may be
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substituted for as a whole by one of its constituent units; e.g. a noun may stand for the whole noun phrase, c.f. big African lions roaming in the jungle — lions.” [Jackson, 1980: 26]
19.2 EXOCENTRIC STRUCTURE
Phrases like the PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE (PP, for short) beside a stream are said to be EXOCENTRIC. There is a TWO-WAY DEPENDENCE (Û,
for short) between beside and a stream as a whole: both of the two constituents must occur to form the PP beside a stream; “one of them
cannot stand for the whole phrase” [Jackson, 1980: 26].
However, the PP beside a stream can also be considered ENDOCENTRIC: “Although beside and a stream are both needed to express the spatial orientation in this case, it is the word beside that is giving the phrase as a whole its locational character. So beside is the head of the phrase.” [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 43] If the PREPOSITION (P, for short) beside is the HEAD (H, for short) of the prepositional phrase beside a stream then a stream is functioning as COMPLEMENT (C, for short) to that head: (H) beside Û a stream (C).
“Each phrase must have a head. A noun phrase has a noun as head, a verb phrase has a verb as head, a prepositional phrase a preposition as head, and an adjective phrase an adjective as head.” [Jacobs, 1995: 51]
Briefly, the STRUCTURES of MODIFICATION, COMPLEMENTATION, and CO-ORDINATION are all endocentric whereas THE STRUCTURE OF PREDICATION is exocentric. As to a prepositional phrase, it may be regarded either as an exocentric structure or as an endocentric structure.
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20 Types of syntactic structures
20.1 STRUCTURE OF MODIFICATION
There is a one-way dependence (, for short) in the STRUCTURE of MODIFICATION. In the phrase their rather dubious jokes, rather is dependent on dubious, in the sense that it is only present because dubious is. If we are to omit dubious, rather will be left without a function, and the
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omission would result in an ill-formed string (*their rather jokes). Notice, however, that dubious is in no way dependent on rather. We can omit rather and still be left with a perfectly good phrase (their dubious jokes).
And rather dubious as a whole is dependent on jokes but not vice-versa. Rather dubious (the modifier of the phrase) could be omitted (giving their jokes), but jokes (the head of the phrase) could not (*their rather dubious).
(modifier) rather dubious (head) (modifier) rather dubious jokes (head)
(modifier) their rather dubious jokes (head)
Thus, ‘their rather dubious jokes’ is a typical example of the STRUCTURE OF MODIFICATION.
20.2 STRUCTURE OF COMPLEMENTATION
There is a two-way dependence (Û, for short) in the STRUCTURE of COMPLEMENTATION. Both the monotransitive verb saw and the noun phrase many things must occur to form the verb phrase saw many things: saw is its head and many things is the complement of that head:
(head) saw Û many things (complement)
Since one of the two constituents cannot stand for the whole verb phrase as a unit, ‘saw many things’ is a typical example of the STRUCTURE of COMPLEMENTATION.
20.3 STRUCTURE OF COORDINATION
“Max and Adrian is a COORDINATE NOUN PHRASE (Co-NP, for short), with Max and Adrian coordinated by and. Co-ordinate NPs have as many heads as there are nouns coordinated in them. Other COORDINATORS are
but and or.” [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 67]
In Stageberg’s opinion [1965: 273], the coordinator “is set off as a separate element and does not belong to either IC”:
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Co-NP Co-NP
NP1 Conj NP2 NP1 NP2 Conj NP3
N1 N2 N1 N2 N3
(1)a. Max and Adrian (1)b. sandwiches, relish, and coffee
Stuffy and hot is a COORDINATE ADJECTIVE PHRASE (Co-AP, for short), with stuffy and hot coordinated by and. This Co-AP can be pre-modified by too, which is a DEGREE ADVERB (DEG, for short) as in (2)a. Stuffy and too hot is another Co-AP, with stuffy and too hot coordinated by and. In this case, too only pre-modifies the ADJECTIVE (A, for short) hot as in (2)c. Describe the internal structure of the phrase marked
(2)b. In what way(s) is it different from that of (2)a?
AP Co-AP Co-AP
DEG Co-AP AP1 Conj AP2 AP1 Conj AP2
A1 Conj A2 DEG A A A DEG A
(2)a. too stuffy and hot (2)b.too stuffy and hot (2)c. stuffy and too hot
The prepositional phrase up and down the stairs contain a CO-ORDINATION OF PREPOSITIONS (Co-P, for short), with up and down coordinated by and as in (3)a. In the foundation and under the rafters is a COORDINATE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE (Co-PP, for short), with in the foundation and under the rafters coordinated by and as in (3)b.
PP Co-PP
Co-P NP PP1 Conj PP2
P1 Conj P2 the stairs P1 NP1 P2 NP2
(3)a. up and down (3)b. in the foundation and under the rafters
Two important points to notice about the co-ordinations marked (1)a-b, (2)a-c and (3)a-b are that “the mother and the sisters of the
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coordinator (and in this case) all have the same category label” [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 71] and that “the parts joined by Coordinate Conjunctions ought usually to be of exactly equal value” [Campbell, 1962: 5]. All these co-ordinations are typical examples of the STRUCTURE of
COORDINATION.
20.4 STRUCTURE OF PREDICATION
Wherever possible, a SENTENCE (S, for short) should be divided into the fewest possible parts, i.e. into two: a NOUN PHRASE (NP, for short) and a
VERB PHRASE (VP, for short).
S
NP (subject)
(4)a. Ducks
b. The ducks
c. Those gigantic ducks
d. The mouth-watering duck on the table e. The ones over there
f. Those on the left g. Mine
h. These i. They
VP (predicate)
paddled.
are paddling away.
were paddling away furiously. won’t be paddling away again. must have paddled for a while. have been paddling noisily. kept on paddling quickly.
did paddle. did.
The sentences (4)a-i have all been divided into two constituents; the
first is traditionally said to function as SUBJECT, and the second as PREDICATE. “One way of thinking of these functions is to think of the subject as being used to mention something and the predicate as used to say something true or false about the subject.” [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 31]
While the noun phrase and the verb phrase of the sentences marked (4)a-i display the STRUCTURE of MODIFICATION, the very sentences are typical examples of theSTRUCTURE ofPREDICATION.
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