- Trang Chủ
- Giáo dục học
- Astudy of causal connectives in English and in Vietnamese in the light of figure/ground relationships
Xem mẫu
- A STUDY OF CAUSAL CONNECTIVES IN ENGLISH
AND IN VIETNAMESE IN THE LIGHT OF FIGURE/
GROUND RELATIONSHIPS
Nguyen Tu Nhi1
Abstract: Causation can be expressed by various linguistic means. It is of great
importance to understand the nature of causation expressed by these different means in
the light of cognitive semantics. In addition, the choice of one causative construction over
another may differ in English and in Vietnamese. This difference may bring about the
negative impact on language transfer, and learners tend to fail to convey the causative
relation between participants in a causative eventIn this paper, causative constructions
with causal connectives shall be discussed and analyzed. The "so-called" backward
causality and forward causality will be discussed in the light of Figure/ Ground
relationships to nd out the similarities and diferences between them. Then we propose
some solutions for Vietnamese learners of English to make the appropriate use of causal
connectives in English and in Vietnamese.
Key words: Cognitive semantics, Figure/Ground relationships, causal connectives
1. Introduction
Causation has been a topic of linguistic investigation for many years. According
to Herchenson (1981), there are two main reasons underlying this main interest of
linguists in the phenomenon: (i) causative constructions build a good proving ground
for many questions of theoretical interest, and (ii) causation can be expressed in natural
language in numerous linguistic alternatives. Altenberg (1984) has, in fact, identi ed
nearly one hundred possible explicit links for encoding a causal relation between two
propositions. Focusing on different kinds of causal expressions could lead to different
conclusions about the nature of causation. Any language user is thus confronted with the
problem of choosing one alternative over another. But how is this choice constrained?
Why does a language user choose one link over another? This same question arises in
natural language generation, where it is crucial that the rules to select a speci c linguistic
structure be made explicit. In order to use and generate the different possible causative
constructions properly, it is necessary to understand what their underlying meaning is.
In addition, the favor of one causative construction over another in a language, to some
extent, re ects its cultural characteristics. This is the reason why we look at causation
under the light of cognitive semantics, which is still a fairly new theory in Vietnam.
This study is intended not only to illuminate the organization and constitution of
causation in English and how it is realized in Vietnamese but also to help learners use the
language accurately in translation, interpretation and communication.
2. Development
1. MA, Pham Van Dong University
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According to Frawley (1992), every event can be thought of as an abstract scene
in which the entities that participate in the event can either emerge as salient - Figure- or
recede and form part of the background – Ground. Talmy's cause-result principle (2000a)
suggests that the unmarked (or only possible) linguistic expression for a causal relation
between two events treats the Ec (Causing Event) as Ground and the Er (Resulting
Event) as Figure.
2.1. Three domains of causal connectives
Causative constructions with causal connectives shall be discussed and analyzed in
the three domains proposed by Sweetser's (1993), including content domain, epistemic
domain, and speech act domain . The "so-called" backward causality and forward
causality shall also be discussed in the light of Figure/ Ground relationships.
Both English and Vietnamese have connectives to express causal relations. The
systematic use of one lexical item to express a certain type of causal relationship implies
that people distinguish between several types of causality. In her seminal work, Sweetser
(1993) argued that a conjunction like because is used in the content domain (1), epistemic
domain (2) and speech act domain (3):
John came back because he loved her. [7, p.77]
John đã quay trở lại vì/bởi vì/bởi lẽ anh ấy yêu cô ta.
Vì yêu cô ta nên John đã quay trở lại.
John loved her, because he came back. [7, p.77]
John yêu cô ta, vì lẽ anh ấy đã quay trở lại.
What are you doing tonight, because there’s a good movie on. [7, p.77]
Tối nay anh có làm gì không? Ở rạp có chiếu phim hay đấy. (Chúng mình đi xem
phim nhé).
It can be seen in (1) that John came back, and asserting that his love was the real-
world cause of his coming back. Example (2) does not most naturally mean that the
return caused the love in the real world; in fact, (2) is normally understood as meaning
that the speaker's knowledge of John's return (as a premise) causes the conclusion that
John loved her. (3) would be a totally incomprehensible sentence if the conjunction
were understood in the content domain. Since the main clause is not even a statement,
the because-clause cannot be understood as stating the real-world cause of the event or
situation described in the main clause. Rather, the because clause gives the cause of the
speech act embodied by the main clause. Here the speech act of inviting occurs and the
reading can be described as I ask what you are doing tonight because I want to suggest
that we go and see this good movie.
Sweetser (1993) suggests that causal conjunction in the content domain marks
"real world" causality of an event, while in the epistemic domain, a causal conjunction
will mark the cause of a belief or a conclusion, and in the speech act domain, it will
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indicate causal explanation of the speech act being performed.
In Vietnamese, causal connectives used in causative constructions are similar to
those in English. The connectives "vì", "bởi", "tại", "do", "bởi vì", "tại vì", etc., are
commonly used in all three domains to introduce the cause; and "nên", "cho nên" are
used to introduce the result. All those above-mentioned conjunctions can be used on their
own without the interference of others to emphasize either a result or a cause. However,
there are differences in the use of these connectives in the two languages. While the
correlatives such as vì...nên..., bởi...nên..., tại...nên..., bởi vì...cho nên..., do...nên..., tại
vì...cho nên... cannot be used in English as a way of expressing cause-effect relationship,
those are typically used in Vietnamese.
In addition, it should be noticed here that in Vietnamese correlatives are hardly
used in the epistemic domain. Instead, the causal connectives such as vì lẽ, bởi lẽ are
commonly used. The reason is that the epistemic domain indicates a logical conclusion
from the speaker. Sometimes, the conclusion is overtly expressed in Vietnamese by
means of an epistemic modality such as ắt hẳn, hẳn là, chắc là. In the epistemic domain,
the emphasis is on the Ec because it is the speaker's conclusion and he/she would like
to make it salient. Thus, the subordinate clause functions as the Figure while the main
clause as the Ground of the causative situation. On the contrary, in the speech act
domain, Vietnamese translational equivalents suggest that emphasis be put on the main
clause as Er and the causal connective is often omitted. Instead, the whole causative
event is divided into two separate clauses. A speech act is part of the whole causative
construction. Thus, main clauses as Er often function as Figure and subordinate clauses
as Grounds of this causative construction.
Similarities and dissimilarities in Figure/Ground Shift will be discussed in more
details below in line with the two dimensions of causality: Backward causality and
forward causality.
2.2. Figure/Ground Shift in backward and forward causality in causative
constructions with causal connectives
2.2.1. Backward and forward causality in English and in Vietnamese
Causal relations can be expressed in the order antecedents, consequents – as in X
so Y - or in reverse order - Y because X. These are referred to as forward and backward
causality (Sanders, 1997)
While such conjunctions as because, as or since serve to introduce backward
causality, those of forward causality are realized by so, as a result, that's why and so on.
Below are two examples, one for each category:
Some women are choosing coal mining as a job because modern technology has
improved working conditions. [9, p.155]
Một số phụ nữ ngày nay có khuynh hướng chọn nghề mỏ vì công nghệ hiện đại đã
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cải thiện điều kiện lao động.
The sun was shining, so the temperature rose. [7, p.2]
Trời đang nắng gắt, do vậy nhiệt độ tăng cao.
To put it simpler, instead of saying A is the cause of B, we may say B is the result of
A. So, it follows naturally that the same cause-effect relationship can often be established
in either clauses as forward or those as backward causality:
The neighbours are not at home, because their lights are out. [7, p.2]
Những người hàng xóm không có ở nhà vì/vì lẽ đèn trong nhà tắt.
The neighbours' lights are out, so they are not at home. [7, p.2]
Vì lẽ đèn trong nhà tắt, nên (ắt hẳn) họ không có ở nhà.
Despite the same cause-effect relationship they both may create, clauses as cause
and result circumstantials are necessary to be separately observed and investigated, as the
speaker's intention of emphasis is not always the same: sometimes on cause, sometimes
on result.
Talmy's cause-result principle suggests that the unmarked (or only possible)
linguistic expression for a causal relation between two events treats the Ec (Causing
Event) as Ground and the Er (Resulting Event) as Figure. Where the complete syntactic
form is a full complex sentence, the two events are in the subordinate and the main
clause, respectively. Let us consider the following examples:
They stayed home because they were feeling tired. [9, p.380]
Họ ở nhà vì họ cảm thấy mệt mỏi.
They were feeling tired, so they stayed home. [9, p.380]
Họ cảm thấy mệt mỏi, vì vậy họ ở nhà.
We can note that the two sentences (8) and (9) are semantically alike, both referring
to the same single situation; that the pair of events in that situation are related causally;
and that the 'feeling tired' event is the cause, while the 'staying home' event is the result.
By the cause-result principle, the Ec functions as the Ground, while the Er functions
as the Figure. Sentence (8) represents the Figure in the main clause and the Ground in
a dependent clause. On the other hand, sentence (9) represents the Ground in the main
clause and the Figure in the dependent clause.
Thus, viewed in the Figure/ Ground Shift model, causal connectives used in
different dimensions of causality and different domains are very distinct from each other.
2.2.2. Figure/ Ground shift in backward causality
In English, this type of causality is most commonly introduced by such conjunctions
as because, as or since. Clauses as Ec beginning with because tend to follow the main
clause ( nal position) as the emphasis is on the reason for the happening or occurrence
in the main clause, according to Chalker (1984):
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I lent him the money because he needed it.
Tôi đã cho nó vay tiền vì nó cần tiền.
This is in contrast to Talmy's cause-result principle that the Er receives the focus
and functions as the Figure. Here, we agree with Chalker's viewpoint because Chalker
is very clear when he also makes a distinction between because on the one hand and as,
since on the another.
It should be noticed here that because is the most common conjunction of cause
and so because can always be used in place of as or since to answer the question "why?";
However, the conjunctions as, since cannot always be used instead of because especially
when it follows a negative in the main clause.
People sometimes use for, which means the same as because, to introduce clauses
as Ecs, but its use is now considered to be too formal and old-fashioned, according to
Cobuild (1990):
The soldiers were exhausted for they had marched a long way.
Những người lính kiệt sức vì họ đã hành quân quá xa.
In Vietnamese, as has been mentioned above, the most common causal connectives
are "vì", "bởi", "tại", "do", "bởi vì", "tại vì", etc. Unlike English, the correlatives such
as vì...nên..., bởi...nên..., tại...nên..., bởi vì...cho nên..., do...nên..., tại vì...cho nên.. are
commonly used in Vietnamese to express cause-effect relationship.
In addition, in Vietnamese, the following clause is regarded as a typical kind of
ways showing cause-effect relationship:
Vì tên Đậu là thân nhân của hắn cho nên chúng con bắt nộp thay. [10, p.77]
It is obvious that in Vietnamese there exists a combination of a cause conjunction
with a result one, making a two-marker correlative (which is impossible in English):
marker1 (conjunctions of cause), marker2 (result conjunctions): Here are some of the
conjunctions:
M1 ..., M2 M1 ..., M2
vì ... (cho) nên / mà bởi... (cho) nên / mà
tại... (cho) nên / mà bởivì... (cho) nên / mà
nhờ... (cho) nên / mà tạivì... (cho) nên / mà
However, when these correlatives are in use, the emphasis is not on the cause or
reason, but on the result. Thus, the construction M1 ... M2 in Vietnamese mentioned
above is much closer to "as" or "since", which are also not emphasized in English, than
"because", which is more emphatic to the cause in the content-domain. Viewed in the
Figure/ Ground Shift model, in English the because-clause as the Ec receives the focus
as a default case, and is referred to as the Figure while the main clause as the Er as the
Ground. On the contrary, in the clauses with since or as, the focus may be shifted to
the main clause as Er which is referred to as the Figure and the subordinate clause as
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the Ground. Meanwhile, in Vietnamese, with the common use of the correlatives, the
emphasis is put on the main clause as Er, not on the subordinate clause as Ec. Thus the
main clause functions as the Figure and the subordinate clause as the Ground in the
causative event. This ts in very well with Talmy's cause-result principle.
2.2.3. Figure/ Ground Shift in forward causality
This type of causality in English is introduced by connectives such as so, as a
result, that's why, and normally takes the end position. That is, clauses introduced by
these conjunctions often follow the main clause and describe consequences brought
about by an event or a situation in it:
The rules cannot be broken, so you will have to spend two hours collecting
trash. [8, p.78]
Vì lẽ không thể làm sai quy định nên anh phải bỏ ra hai giờ để thu dọn rác.
He heard me calling, so he came. [8, p.79]
Vì nghe tôi gọi nên anh ấy đến.
He came, so he heard me calling. [8, p.79]
Anh ấy đến, vì vậy/chính vì thế (ắt hẳn là/chắc rằng) anh ấy nghe tôi gọi.
Here we are in Paris, so what would you like to do on our rst evening here? [8,
p.79]
Chúng mình đang ở Paris rồi đấy. Em thích làm gì trong buổi tối đầu tiên ở đây
nhỉ?
The causality in (14) would appear to be reversed with that of (13), but it is not.
In (13) and 14), real-world causality connects the two clauses: that is, the rules' un-
breakability causes your fate in the real world (13) and his hearing was the real cause of
his coming (14) whereas in (15), the knowledge of his arrival causes the conclusion that
he heard the calling, and (16) may be interpreted as: Our presence in Paris enables my
act of asking what you would like to do.
In Vietnamese, the connectives vì thế, vì vậy, bởi vậy, do vậy, chính vì thế, chính vì
vậy, vì lẽ đó are commonly used in all three domains. These connectives are used separately
without the interference of any other correlatives to introduce the Ers which receives the
emphasis. The Vietnamese translational equivalents also suggest that correlatives such
as vì...nên..., bởi...nên..., tại...nên..., bởi vì...cho nên..., do...nên..., tại vì...cho nên.. can
also be used to express cause-effect relationship. In this case, the causative construction
is very similar to that of backward causality.
Viewed in the Figure/ Ground Shift model, the backward causality is very different
from the forward causality with because-clauses. Clauses introduced by backward
causal connectives function as the Ec in the causative situation while those introduced
by forward causal connectives as the Er. In the former case, either the Ec or the Er can
receive the focus, depending on the causal connectives used. Thus, there is a Figure/
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Ground Shift in this type of causality in English. Meanwhile, in the latter type the Er
receives the focus and acts as the Figure. The similarity is that in both cases, the clauses
introduced by the causal connectives receive the focus and act as the Figure, except for
clauses introduced by since or as.
The problem seems to be more complicated in Vietnamese. There are two
possibilities in the Vietnamese translational equivalents. One is that when the correlatives
are used, all the Figure/Ground functions are very similar to those of backward causality.
The other is that the causal connectives vì thế, vì vậy, bởi vậy, do vậy, chính vì thế, chính
vì vậy, vì lẽ are used to introduce the Er and act as the Figure. However, in both cases, the
Ers act as the Figure while the Ecs as the Ground.
2.2.4. Similarities and Differences between backward causality and forward
causality
As has been discussed, much similar to English, in Vietnamese result is nothing
other than the opposite of cause. To recognize the similarities and differences between
backward causality and forward causality in English and in Vietnamese, Let us look at
example (17): "Nó thi hỏng vì nó học kém" [2, p.209] which is translated into English as
"He failed the exams because he learned badly at shool" . This sentence is semantically
equivalent to (18): "Nó học kém nên nó thi hỏng" [2, p.209] which is translated into
English as "He learned badly at school, so he failed the exams".
Obviously, (17) is a typical example of backward causality whereas (18) is a
typical forward causality. At rst look, these two constructions have the same meaning.
However, when viewed in the Figure/Ground Shift model, they both have similarities as
well as differences.
- Similarities
Both English and Vietnamese can express backward as well as forward causality
by means of causal connectives. These two dimensions of causality are presented in
three domains, namely content domain, epistemic domain and speech act domain as
proposed by Sweetser (1993).
Backward causality is introduced by connectives such as because, as, since in
English and "vì", "bởi", "tại", "do", "bởi vì", "tại vì" and correlatives vì...nên..., bởi...
nên..., tại...nên..., bởi vì...cho nên..., do...nên..., tại vì...cho nên. .in Vietnamese.
In the meantime, forward causality is introduced by so, as a result, that's why in
English and either connectives vì thế, vì vậy, bởi vậy, do vậy, chính vì thế, chính vì vậy
or correlatives vì...nên..., bởi...nên..., tại...nên..., bởi vì...cho nên..., do...nên..., tại vì...cho
nên.. in Vietnamese.
It can be seen that in the epistemic domain, in both languages the Ec acts as the
Figure and the Er as the Ground in the backward causality. In contrast, the Er acts as the
Figure and the Ec as the Ground in the forward causality. Meanwhile, in the speech act
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domain both languages have the Er as the Figure and the Ec as the Ground.
In the content domain, with forward causality, the emphasis is on the Er. Thus,
in both cases, the Eract as the Figure while the Ec as the Ground in both English and
Vietnamese.
- Differences
Let us start with the content domain. In backward causality, in English, the emphasis
can be put either on the Ec (in case of because-clauses) or on the Er (in case of since
or as-clauses) depending on the causal connective used in the context. That is to say,
there is a shift of Figure and Ground in the backward causality in English. In contrast, in
Vietnamese, the main clause typically receives the focus and therefore functions as the
Figure and the subordinate clause as the Ground.
Meanwhile, in forward causality, though in both English and Vietnamese, the Er
often receives the focus and acts as the Figure in English. Yet, the forward causality in
English can also be expressed in Vietnamese by means of the correlatives mentioned
above. Thus, there is Figure/Ground Shift similar to that in the backward causality.
In consideration of epistemic domain and speech act domain, though the Figure/
Ground model is similar between the two languages, differences occur with each language
as per the dimension of causality: backward causality and forward causality. Whereas the
Ec acts as the Figure and the Er as the Ground in the backward causality, the Er acts as
the Figure and the Ec as the Ground in the forward causality.
In short, this subsection is closed by suggesting a dissimilarity between English
and Vietnamese in terms of the way cause-effect (fact-cause or result cause) relationship
is realized: while in Vietnamese the way both markers (one of cause, the other of result)
are combined together within the framework of a causative construction to show the
relationship is very common, in English, on the contrary, only either cause marker or
result one can be used within a causative construction to express the same relationship,
though emphatic effect of course, may vary distinguishably.
The table below summarizes causal connectives in English in contrast with
Vietnamese corresponding elements:
Table 1: Common causal connectives in English and Vietnamese
Dimension of
causality
Backward causality Forward causality
Languages
in C. A
English Simple conjunctions: Therefore, so, as a result,
because, as, since, for; that's why, consequently, as a
consequence
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Table 2 below presents Figure/Ground Shift models in backward causality and
forward causality in English and Vietnamese:
Table 2: Figure/Ground Shift models for backward causality and forward causality in
English and Vietnamese.
D.o.C Backward Causality Forward Causality
Content Epistemic Speech Content Epistemic Speech
Languages Act Act
of C. A Ec Er Ec Er Ec Er Ec Er Ec Er Ec Er
English F/G G/F F G G F G F G F G F
Vietnamese G F F G G F G F G F G F
Note: D.o.C: Dimension of causality
3. Conclusion and Suggested Solutions
3.1. Conclusion
English and Vietnamese both have connectives to express causal relations. The
causal connectives may be used in three domains: content domain, epistemic domain,
and speech act domain. Causative constructions formed by these causal connectives may
be sub-divided into two types: backward causality and forward causality, depending on
the order of the Ec and the Er.
Viewed in the Figure/Ground Shift model, in the backward causality, emphasis
is put on the Ec. Thus, the Ec acts as Figure and the Er as the Ground in constructions
using because. There is a Figure- Ground shift in causative constructions with since or
as where the Er receives the emphasis and thus acts as the Figure and cedes the Ground
function to the Ec. In contrast, in Vietnamese, the main clause receives the focus and acts
as the Figure, the subordinate clause as the Ground. Unlike backward causality, forward
causality always sets the focus on the Er; thus, the Er acts as the Figure and the Ec as
the Ground. The Vietnamese translational equivalents suggest that emphasis is also put
on the Er; the Er therefore acts as the Figure, the Ec as the Ground. This ts in very well
with Talmy's cause-result principle.
3.2. Suggested Solutions
The fact that causative constructions with causal connectives may be used in three
domains: content-domain, epistemic-domain, and speech act domain. Dif culties may be
encountered by Vietnamese learners of English with this type of causative constructions.
For instance, there may be a shift from one domain to another when a comma is
added. The causal connective because is used in the content-domain in: John came back
because he loved her. This could be shifted to the epistemic domain with the interference
of a comma and could be taken as meaning that I conclude that he must have come
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back, because I know that he loved her: John came back, because he loved her. Thus,
the Vietnamese translational version: Vì lẽ yêu cô ấy nên John đã quay trở lại is not
satisfactory.
What is more, in uenced by the causal connectives being used in the speech act
domain in English, Vietnamese learners of English sometimes produce inappropriate
translational versions . For instance, they may literally produce such version as "Tối
nay bạn có làm gì không bởi vì ở rạp chiếu phim hay" instead of directly expressing the
speech act in the message "Tối nay ở rạp chiếu phim hay. Chúng mình đi xem phim nhé"
for the English causative constructions: What are you doing tonight, because there's a
good movie on.
Since correlative conjunctions are used in Vietnamese , Vietnamese learners of
English may be affected by the transfer, which brings negative impact in the translational
versions. With the use of these correlatives, there may be a Figure/Ground shift in the
Vietnamese translational equivalents, which unexpectedly fail to convey the correct
message from the speaker. Let us have a look at the following example:
Vì nó học kém nên nó thi hỏng. [2, p.209]
He failed the exam because he did badly at school.
In the Vietnamese version, the emphasis is put on the result: nó thi hỏng whereas
in English, the emphasis is shifted to the cause or reason: because he did badly at school.
In order to improve their understanding of causative constructions with
causal connectives so as to avoid potential mistakes in translation, interpretation and
communication, Vietnamese learners of English should be well equipped with knowledge
about Figure/Ground shift in causative constructions. More speci cally, they should
be aware of the Figure/Ground shift in different domain use of causal connectives as
well as in different types of causality: backward causality and forward causality. What
is more important, as English people say: “Practice makes perfect”, it is necessary for
teachers to design exercises to consolidate the learner's knowledge of the Figure-Ground
relationships and the use of causal connectives.
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38.
[2] Diệp Quang Ban (2004), Ngữ pháp tiếng Việt, NXB. Giáo dục.
[3] Chalker, Sylvia (1984), Current English Grammar, London: Mac Millan.
[4] Cobuild, Collin (1990), English Grammar, Rupa & Co.
[5] Frawley, W. (1992), Linguistic Semantics, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.
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[6] Herschenson (1981), Causatives: Restructuring, Opacity, Filters and construal,
Linguistic Analysis.
[7] Sanders, Ted J.M. (1997), Coherence, Causality and Cognitive Complexity in
Discourse, Universiteit Utrecht, the Netherlands.
[8] Sweetser, E. (1993), From Etymology to Pragmatics, Cambridge University Press.
[9] Talmy Leonard (2000a), Toward a Cognitive Semantics - Vol.I., The MIT Press.
[10] Lý Toàn Thắng (2005), Ngôn ngữ học tri nhận- Từ lý thuyết đại cương đến thực tiễn
tiếng Việt, NXB. Khoa học xã hội.
NGHIÊN CỨU CÁC TỪ NỐI CHỈ NGUYÊN NHÂN TRONG TIẾNG ANH VÀ
TIẾNG VIỆT TRONG MỐI QUAN HỆ HÌNH/NỀN
NGUYỄN TÚ NHI
Trường Đại học Phạm Văn Đồng, Quảng Ngãi
Tóm tắt: Các cấu trúc chỉ nguyên nhân-kết quả rất phổ biến và có thể được thể
hiện bằng các phương tiện ngôn ngữ khác nhau. Bản chất của nguyên nhân được thể
hiện qua các phương tiện khác nhau dưới ánh sáng của ngữ nghĩa học tri nhận. Việc
lựa chọn một cấu trúc chỉ nhân-quả này hoặc cấu trúc nhân-quả khác có thể khác nhau
giữa tiếng Anh và tiếng Việt. Sự khác biệt này có thể mang lại tác động tiêu cực trong
chuyển dịch ngôn ngữ và người học thường không truyền đạt mối quan hệ nguyên nhân
giữa các tham tố trong cùng một bối cảnh. Quan trọng hơn, sự khác biệt này phản ánh
khác biệt giữa các nền văn hóa trong sử dụng cấu trúc chỉ nguyên nhân-kết quả. Trong
bài viết này, các cấu trúc nguyên nhân-kết quả sẽ được thảo luận và phân tích. "Quan hệ
nhân-quả tiến và quan hệ nhân-quả lùi được thảo luận theo quan điểm của mối quan hệ
Hình/Nề̀n để tìm ra những điểm tương đồng và sự khác biệt giữa chúng. Sau đó, chúng
tôi đề xuất một số giải pháp cho người học tiếng Anh để sử dụng hợp lý mối liên hệ nhân
quả trong tiếng Anh và tiếng Việt.
Từ khóa: Ngữ nghĩa học tri nhận, mối quan hệ Hình/Nền, từ nối nguyên nhân- kết
quả.
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