Xem mẫu
- AGU International Journal of Sciences – 2019, Vol. 7 (1), 53 – 59
A CROSS – CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE OF SPEECH ACTS AND ITS APPLICATION
TO EFL CLASSROOMS
Nguyen Thi Nhat Minh1
1
An Giang University, VNU - HCM
Information: ABSTRACT
Received: 16/01/2019
Speech acts, the actions performed by utterances, play an important role in
Accepted: 02/05/2019
communication, particularly verbally. Speech act performance requires not
Published: 11/2019
only knowledge of the language, but also knowledge about the appropriate
Keywords: use of that language in a certain situation within a particular culture. As a
Cross-cultural perspective, result, cultural awareness constitutes an integral part of this important area
illocutionary force, of pragmatics. This study provides some insights into the use of speech acts
performative verbs, speech by Vietnamese EFL learners from a cross-cultural perspective. It is
acts, utterances
suggested that the influence of culture has resulted in students’ common
failures to understand and perform English speech acts. To minimize this
kind of pragmatic failure, it is recommended that EFL teachers raise
students’ awareness of some cultural issues in cross-cultural
communication. Furthermore, it is necessary to incorporate speech acts into
English language teaching with authentic input and lifelike communicative
activities.
1. INTRODUCTION cultural perspective, and to explore some
In order to achieve successful communication pedagogical issues related to common
in a foreign language, people are required to pragmatic failure in terms of performance of
understand what the speaker is saying and know English speech from which teachers of English
how to respond appropriately. In can get some useful tools for their teaching.
communication, people not only say things 2. AN OVERVIEW OF SPEECH ACT
containing grammatical structures and words, THEORY
but also perform actions via those utterances, Since introduced by Austin (1962) and further
namely speech acts. However, for most developed by Searle (1969), the theory of
language learners, it is difficult to understand speech acts has been growing over time with
the intended meaning communicated by speech the contribution of numerous scholars. Within
acts, or to produce a speech act appropriately in its scope, this paper presents some basic
the target language because of the close tie concepts of speech acts, including definition of
between speech acts and culture. This paper speech acts, the performative hypothesis and
aims to present an overview of speech act speech act taxonomy.
theory, to examine speech acts from a cross-
53
- AGU International Journal of Sciences – 2019, Vol. 7 (1), 53 – 59
2.1 Definition of speech acts and three Yule (1996) also emphasized that of these three
related acts dimensions, the most worthy discussed item is
Yule (1996) defined speech acts as the actions illocutionary force. Indeed, the term “speech
performed by utterances, and in English, these acts” is generally interpreted narrowly to mean
actions are generally labelled as apology, only the illocutionary force of an utterance.
complaint, compliment, invitation, promise, or However, it is quite problematic that the same
request, for instance, “Raise your hand!” utterance can potentially have different
(request), “I’ll call you tonight,” (promise), illocutionary forces, for example, ‘I’ll see you
“The tea is too cold.” (complaint) (p.48) later’ can be interpreted as a promise or a
warning. How can speakers assume that the
Cohen (2006) offered a similar definition that
intended illocutionary force will be recognized
speech acts are often (but not always) patterned,
by the hearer? That question has been addressed
routinized utterances that speakers use to
by considering the Illocutionary Force
perform language functions, such as thanking,
Indicating Devices (IFIDs)..
complimenting, requesting, refusing,
apologizing, and complaining. IFIDs means an indication in the speaker’s
utterance of the communicative force of that
Austin (1962) proposed the original distinction
utterance. The most obvious device for
between the different aspects of a speech act
indicating the illocutionary force is a
into locutionary, illocutionary and
performative verb which explicitly names the
perlocutionary. His classification was then
illocutionary act being performed.
developed and exemplified by Yule (1996) as
follows. Nevertheless, in some cases there is no
performative verb to be identified, so IFIDs
A Locutionary act is the basic act of forming
which can be identified are word order and
the sounds and words to create a meaningful
intonation. For instance, “You’re going!” (I tell
utterance in a language. For example, in
you that you are going); “You are going?” (I
English language, uttering ‘Aha mokofa’ may
request confirmation about whether you are
be considered a failure to produce a locutionary
going); “Are you going?” (I ask you if you are
act whereas ‘I’ve just made some coffee’ is a
going). (Yule, 1996, p.50)
success.
2.2 The performative hypothesis
Most well-formed utterances are produced with
some kind of purpose. The sentence ‘I’ve just Another element of speech act theory is the
made some coffee” might be uttered to make a performative hypothesis. This is the assumption
statement, an offer, an explanation or for some first proposed by Ross (1970) that underlying
other communicative purpose. This is called the every utterance (U), there is a clause containing
illocutionary act - the communicative force or a performative verb (Vp) which makes the
intention of an utterance illocutionary force more explicit. The basic
structure of the underlying clause is I (hereby)
A Perlocutionary act is the intended effect an
Vp you (that) U.
utterance has on the hearer. Depending on the
circumstances, the sentence ‘I’ve just made Yule (1996) provided a closer look at the
some coffee’ will be uttered on the assumption advantages and disadvantages of this
that the hearer will recognize it as an hypothesis. He pointed out that this hypothesis
explanation for a wonderful smell or an offer to helps to make clear what elements are involved
drink some coffee. (Yule, 1996, pp.48-49) in the production and interpretation of
54
- AGU International Journal of Sciences – 2019, Vol. 7 (1), 53 – 59
utterances. For example, comparing the two A different approach is based on structure to
utterances below, we can see that the classify speech act as direct or indirect. In
underlying clause in utterance [b] make the English, there are three basic structural forms
illocutionary force more explicit than in (declarative, interrogative, imperative) and
utterance [b] three general communicative functions
a. Clean up the mess! (statement, question, request). We will have a
direct speech act when there is a direct
b. I hereby order you that you clean up this
relationship between a structure and a function,
mess. (Yule, 1996, p.51)
for instance, a declarative used to make a
However, there are some disadvantages to the statement. On the other hand, when the
performative hypothesis. The first one is that a relationship between structural form and
explicit performative version has a much more function is indirect, e.g. an interrogative used to
serious impact than an implicit version as in the make a request, we will have an indirect speech
following utterances: act. (Yule, 1996)
The work was done by Emily. In light of this approach, one utterance can be
I hereby tell you that the work was done by used to have two different functions. For
Emily. example, with the utterance ‘It is cold outside’,
if the speaker describes the weather to the
Another disadvantage is that it is difficult to
hearer, the declarative is a statement. But if this
know exactly what a performative verb might
utterance is used to ask the hearer to close the
be for some utterances. For example, both the
door, the declarative performed is to make a
speaker and the hearer can recognize the
request.
utterance in ‘You are dumber than a rock’ as an
insult, it would be strange to have an explicit On the other hand, different structures can be
version as ‘I hereby insult that you are dumper used to accomplish the same basic function. For
than a rock.’ (Yule, 1996, p.52) example, when the speaker wants the addressee
not to stand in front of the TV, he may produce
2.3 Speech act taxonomy
the following utterances
Instead of listing the all possible explicit
Move out of the way!
performatives, there are various attempts to
classify speech acts. Searle (1975) categorized You’re standing in front of the TV.
speech acts into five types of functions. Do you have to stand in front of the TV?
Representatives (assertion, description, (Yule, 1996, p.55)
statement) is stating what is believed or known.
It is evident that although the three utterances
Directives (command, order, request,
are of different structural forms, their basic
suggestion) is getting the hearer to do
function in this situation is a command.
something. Commissives (promise, threat,
refusal, pledge) is committing the speaker to However, in some situations, a hearer, still fails
some future actions. Expressives (thanks, to identify the indirectness of a speech act, as in
apology, praise) is expressing feelings or a famous example by Blum-Kulka (1983) cited
attitudes. Declarations (declaring, firing from in Locastro (2003, p.242)
employment, ordering) is bringing about a Child: Can you fix the needle?
change. Adult: I’m busy.
Child: I just wanted to know if you can fix it.
55
- AGU International Journal of Sciences – 2019, Vol. 7 (1), 53 – 59
3. THE APPLICATION OF CROSS- Many speakers, in addition, seem to translate
CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES OF from the source language to the target one when
SPEECH ACTS TO TEACHING they speak, which raises problems when
ENGLISH IN THE VIETNAMESE transferring and recognizing speech acts from
CONTEXT one language to another.
3.1 The importance of speech acts in EFL Nguyen (1999) found that because of the
setting influence of culture, the Vietnamese tend to be
According to the contemporary pedagogical overtly modest, particularly in spoken language.
tendency, the major duty of a teacher of foreign In fact, we do not want to show off our ability,
languages is to help learners develop their we’re shy. As a result, Asian people in general
communicative competence. In fact, and the Vietnamese in particular are usually not
achievement of successful communication in a as successful in interviews as Westerners. The
foreign language calls for many factors beyond Anglo-American interview style, for example,
linguistic competence. This fact can account requires candidates to sell themselves, whereas
for the paradox that even EFL learners with an interviewee from a different sociocultural
good mastery of English syntax and vocabulary background may shy away from such
fail to use English appropriately. It is pragmatic presentation (Roberts, Davies & Jupp, 1992).
failure that leads to their communication Therefore, we do not understand an
breakdown, especially in cross-cultural interviewer’s intention in the question “Do you
contexts. think you can do it?” which requires the
interviewees to talk about their capability or
In oral communication each utterance serves a
their plans to do it. Consequently, many
specific function. It is obvious that these
interviewees mistakenly use short answers like
utterances, namely speech acts, play a dominant
“Yes, I do”, which makes interviewers unclear
role in daily conversations. However, they seem
and unsatisfied (Nguyen, 1999)
to be a hard task for most foreign language
learners to understand and to perform. Their As Locastro (2012) remarked, every culture has
difficulties mostly spring from inadequate characteristic speech acts that reflect its norms
mastery of the conversational norms involved and values. The Vietnamese also tend to be
in the production of speech acts. This arouses a modest in dealing with compliments. In her
practical need for the integration of speech acts research, Tran (2006) found that the
into English language teaching. Vietnamese often accept the compliment in a
downgrade or disagreement way, which is a
3.2 The influences of culture on the
sharp contrast to English native speakers. For
Vietnamese performance of English
example:
speech acts
- English situation
Theoretically, communicative, or pragmatic,
competence is the ability to use language forms A: You look great!
in a wide range of environments, factoring in B: Thank you.
the relationships between the speakers involved - Vietnamese situation
and the social and cultural context of the
A: Cái áo bồ mặc đẹp thiệt đó! [What a
situation (Lightbown & Spada, 1999; Gass &
beautiful dress you’re wearing!]
Selinker, 2001). For this reason, it is hard for
non-native speakers to speak appropriately.
56
- AGU International Journal of Sciences – 2019, Vol. 7 (1), 53 – 59
B: Đẹp gì mà đẹp. Đồ cũ lắm rồi. [It’s not pragmatic failure in students’ performance of
beautiful. It’s very old.] (Tran, 2006, speech acts.
p.12) For most students, the frequent way of greeting
3.3 Common pragmatic failure in the teacher as he or she enters the classroom is
understanding and performance of “Good morning / Good afternoon, Teacher”.
English speech acts in reality The most commonly used form of addressing a
Understanding the intended meaning imparted teacher in Vietnam is “Thầy / Cô” (Teacher)
by a speech act is not a simple task at all. In and the Vietnamese avoid calling the name of
many cases the hearer cannot figure out or the superior for the reason of respect. However,
might even misunderstand the speaker’s the word “teacher” cannot be used as a form of
intention, which might lead to communication addressing in English language. Native English
breakdowns. For example: speakers often address their teacher by the title
Mr. / Mrs. / Miss / Ms. followed by their
A: Can you repair the leaky faucet?
surname. Therefore, a native English teacher
B: Yes, I can., would you like me to fix it? may feel a bit puzzled when addressed with the
Here the hearer interprets the speaker’s word “Teacher” only.
utterance as a normal Yes / No question which In another situation, if a native speaker of
asks about his ability to do the action while A is English remarks to a Vietnamese interlocutor
actually making a request. B’s misinterpretation “Your English is excellent!”, a possible
is due to his oversimplification of the use of response to his compliment would be “ No, my
Yes / No questions. English is still poor” because it is natural and
Failure to understand speech acts also arises advisable for the Vietnamese to accept
from learners’ tendency to transfer speech act compliments in downgrade or disagreement
strategies and conventions from the source ways for the sake of modesty. In contrast,
language to the target language. Pragmatically, native English speakers are used to saying
it is noticeable that something that works in “Thanks, I try my best” in response to
English might not keep the same meaning when compliments. As a result, the Vietnamese
translated into another language. For instance, response may put the interlocutor at a loss to
Vietnamese learners often translate the keep on the conversation.
expression ‘I couldn’t agree with you more’ In cross-cultural communication when a
into ‘Tôi không thể đồng ý với bạn hơn nữa’ Vietnamese speaker tries to translate an
which expresses a strong disagreement. In fact, utterance with a certain illocutionary act into
the meaning of this utterance is similar to ‘I English, embarrassment occasionally occurs
completely agree with you’, which is because there may be various kinds of
completely opposite to their interpretation. interpretations. For example, the Vietnamese
Thus misleading translation may result in usually greet each other with some informal
serious misunderstanding. utterances such as “Đang đi đâu đó?” (Where
In an attempt to conduct daily conversations, are you going?) or “Ăn cơm chưa?” (Have you
Vietnamese EFL learners may find it eaten?). However, if someone asks an
challenging to produce speech acts using American or English friend the same questions,
appropriate language and manner in the target he or she may feel confused with such inquiries
language. Follows are some common cases of because the original illocutionary act of
greeting of these utterances is diminished in the
57
- AGU International Journal of Sciences – 2019, Vol. 7 (1), 53 – 59
English context. The hearer would instead they are not used to being told what to do, when
interpret them as intrusion of their personal and how to do it.
- AGU International Journal of Sciences – 2019, Vol. 7 (1), 53 – 59
Softened: Maybe you might enjoy seeing language acquisition: An introductory
The Lord of the Rings. course. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Indirect: The new The Lord of the Rings Associates, Inc.
is great. I really enjoyed it. Lightbown, P. and Spada, N. (1999). How
4. CONCLUSION languages are learned. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
To sum up, we are seemingly living in a world
of speeches, and performance of speech acts is LoCastro, V. (2003). An introduction to
a popular means of daily communication. Not pragmatics – Social action for language
only does speech act theory deepen our teachers. Michigan: The University of
understanding of those familiar functional Michigan Press.
utterances but it also forms the theoretical LoCastro, V. (2012). Pragmatics for Language
foundation from which cross-cultural Educators: A Sociolinguistic Perspective.
perspectives of speech act performance between New York: Routledge
English and Vietnamese languages are Nguyen, H. (April, 1999). Illocutionary Force
developed. Those awareness issues along with with Sentence Patterns. Paper presented at
their helpful implications shed lights to the The 1st National Conference on Pragmatics,
integration of speech acts in English language Hanoi, Vietnam.
teaching. Improvement of students’
Roberts C., Davies E. & Jupp T. (1992).
performance of speech acts is the vital
Language and discrimination. London:
condition for their successful communication,
Longman.
especially in cross-cultural contexts.
Ross, J.R. (1970). On Declarative Sentences, in
REFERENCES
R.A. Jacobs and P.S. Rosenbaum, eds.
Austin, J. L. (1962). How to do things with Readings in English Transformational
words. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Grammar, Ginn: Waltham, Mass
Blum-Kulka, S. (1983). Interpreting and Searle, J. R. (1969). Speech acts: An essay in
performing speech acts in a second the philosophy of language. Cambridge:
language: A cross-cultural study of Hebrew Cambridge University Press.
and English. In N. Wolfson and J. Elliot
Searle, J. R. (1975). A Taxonomy of
(Eds.) TESOL and Sociolinguistic Research,
Illocutionary Acts. Minneapolis: University
36-55. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
of Minnesota Press.
Cohen, A. D. (2006). Strategies for learning and
Tran, Q. G. (2006). The Naturalized Role-play:
performing L2 speech acts. Intercultural
An innovative methodology in cross-cultural
Pragmatics, 2-3, 275-301.
and interlanguage pragmatics research.
Fujimori, J. & Houck, N. (2004). Practical Reflections on English Language Teaching,
Criteria for Teaching Speech Acts. The 5 (2), 1-24.
Language Teacher, 28 (5), 3-8.
Yule, G. (1996). Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford
Gass, S. and Selinker, L. (2001). Second University Press.
59
nguon tai.lieu . vn
