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- PART III
Sentence
Stmcture
169
- CHAPTER
Types of Sentences
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Thai manuscript
Clauses
Clauses are the building blocks o f sentences. A clause is a group o f words that
contains (at least) a subject and a verb.
These are clauses: These are not clauses:
ecology is a Science to protect the environment
because pollution causes cancer after working ail day
There are tvvo kinds o f clauses: independent and dependent.
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- Chapter 10 Types o f Sentences
hưỉependent Cỉauses
An independent claiise contains a subject and a verb and expresses a compleíe
thought. It can stand alone as a sentence by itselí. An independent clause is funned vvith
subject verb (+ complement)
Students normally spend four years in college.
I will declare my major’ now, but I may change it later.
Many international students experience cuỉture shock
when they tome to the United States.
Independent Cỉauses
A dependent clause begins with a subordinator such as when, whiỉe, if, íhaí, or who. A
dependent clause does not express a complete thought and cannot stand alone as a
sentence by itselí. A dependent clause is íormed with
suborđinator + subject verb (+ complement)
. although students normally spend four years In college.
if I đeclare my major now...
when they come to the United States...
who was accepted at Harvard University
that the experiment was a success...
A partial list o f subordinators tbllovvs in the chart o f clause connectors. Stuđy th
chart, and then refer to it when you do Practice I .
Clause Connectors
Three groups o f vvords are used to connect clauses in order to form different kinds c
sentences. They are subordinators (subordinating conjunctions), coordinators (cooi
dinating conjunctions), and conjunctive adverbs.
’ declare my major: officially register a major field o f study vvith the university
- Part III Sentence Structure
CLAUSE CONNECTORS
SUBORDINATORS (SUBORDINATING C0NJUNCT10NS)
aíter before that when vvhich
aỉthough even though though vvhenever vvhiỉe
as hovv unỉess vvhere who
as if if until vvherever vvhom
as soon as since what \vhether vvhose
because so that
COORDINATORS (COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS)
You can remember the seven coordinators by the phrase FAN BOYS:
for and nor but or yet so
C0NJUNCT1VE ADVERBS
accordingly furthermore in contrast meanwhiỉe on the other haind
besides hence ỉndeed moreover otherwise
consequently hovvever instead nevertheless therefore
for example in addition likewise nonetheless thus
PRACTICE I
lỉìdependeiu and Dependent Ciaiises
Write ỈNDEP next to the independent clauses and put a period (.) after them. Write DEP
next to the dependent clauses.
____ 1. Jet ỉag affects most ỉong-distance travelers
____ 2. Which is simply the urge to slcep at inappropriate times
____ 3. During long journeys through several time 70nẹs, the body's iniicrclock is
disrupted
____ 4. For some reason, travel from west to east causes greater jet lagthantravel fro)m
east to vvest
__5. Also, changes in vvork schedules can cause jet lag
____ 6. When hospita! nurses change from a day shiíìt to a night shift,for example
____ 7. Although there is no sure vvay to prevent jet ỉag
____ 8. There are some ways to minimize it
____ 9. Because jet lag is caused at least partialỉy by ỉost o f sleep, not just a change ini
the time o f sleep
____ 10. A traveler should plan to arrive at his or her destination as late as possible
____ 11. Upon arriving, he or she should iinmediately go to bed
____ 12. Then the traveler should start to live in.the new time frame immediately
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- Chapter 10 Types o f Sentences
Khuls o/Seníences
A sentence is a group of vvords that you use to comrnunicate your iđeas. Every
scntence is íormed from one or more clauses and expresses a complete thoưght.
There are basically four kinds o f sentences in English: simple, compound, compỉex,
and compound-compĩex. The kind o f sentence is determined by the kind o f cỉauses used
to form it.
Sùnpie Sentences
A simple sentence is one independent clause.
/ eỉỹoy pỊaving tennis \vith mv/riends every> \veekenci.
ỉ Cìỹoy plaỵing tennis and ỉook fon\'cird to it every \veekend.
M yfriends and ỉ pỉay íennis and go bo\vling evcỉy \ị'eekend.
Notice that the second sentence has two verbs, enjoy and ỉook /onvarci to. This is
called a compound verb. Because there is only one clause, this is a simple sentence. The
third sentence has a compound subject as vvell as a compound verb, but it is still a simple
sentence because it has only one cỉause.
PRACTICE 2
Simpỉe Sentences
1. Write two simple sentenceswith one subject and one verb.
2. Write two simple senlencesvvith one subject and two verbs.
3. Write two simple sentericesvvith tvvo subjects and tvvo verbs.
Contpound Sentences
A compound sentence is two or more independent clauses joined together. There are
three vvays to join the cỉauses:
1. With a coordinator ! enjov tennis, but 1 hate golf.
2. With a conjunctive adverb 1enjoy tennis; hoNvever, I hate í;olf.
3. With a semicolon 1enịoy tennis; 1 hate goir
Let's study each type of compound sentence in more detail.
ỉ, Compoiitui Setìíences with Coordinaíors
A compound sentence can be formed as follows:
Independení clause, + coordinator + independent clause
Notice that there is a comma after the ĩirst independent clause. The following
sentences iỉlustraíe the meanings o f the seven "FAN BOYS' coordinators.
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- Part III Sentence Structure
Women live longer than men, for they take better care o f their Health.
for
(The second clause gives the reason for the first clause.)
Women follow more healthíul diets, and they go to doctors more oíten.
and
(The tvvo clauses express equal, similar ideas).
Women don't smoke as much as men do, nor do they drink as much
nor alcohol (Nor means "and not," It joins two negative independent clauses.
Notice that question vvord order is used after nor,)
Men may exercise harder, but they may not exercise as regularly as
but
vvomen do. (The two clauses express equal, contrasting ideas.)
Both men and vvomen should ỉimit the amount o f fat in their diets, or they
or risk getting heart disease. (The two clauses express altemative
possibilities.)
VVomen used to be known as the "vveaker sex," Jet in some ways, they are
yet stronger than men. (The second clause is a surprising or unexpected
contrast to the first clause.)
Men are ỉess cautious than vvomen, so more men die in accidents. (The
so
second clause is the result o f the ĩirst clause.)
PRACTICE 3
Compoimd Sentences wỉíh Coordìnators
A. Add another independent cỉause to the íollovving independent clauses to form
compound sentences. Be sure to vvrite a complete clause containing a subject and a
verb. Circle the coordinator and add punctuation.
Example
The college campus is located in the center o f the citv, @ it is verv easv to do mv
shopping___________________________________________________________________
ì . Students can attend day classes and_________________________________________
2. Students can live in dormitories or
3. í have finished my math homevvork but
4. I have studied English for six years yet
5. My adviser suggested a word Processing class for
6. Some students do not like to Nvrite term papers nor
7. The instructor gave us eight vveeks to vvrite our term papers yet
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- Chapter 10 Types o f Sentences
8. Most students had not even chosen a topic nor _______________________________
9. The instructor vvas very upset for
10. My roommate scored very lìigh on the English placement test so
B. For each pair o f sentences belovv, choose a coordinator that best fits the meaning.
and join the two independent clauses to form a compound sentence. Use each FAN
BOYS coordinator once. Write your new sentences on a separate sheet o f paper,
and punctuate them correctly.
Example
Nuclear accidents can happen. Nuclear poNver plants must have strict safety Controls.
Niiclear accidents can happen, so nuclear povver plants must have strict saíetv Controls.
1. The accident at the nuclear power plant at Three Mile Isỉand in the United States created
fears about the safety o f this energy source. The disaster at Chernobyl in the former
Soviet Union confirmed' them.
2. Solar heating systems are economical to operate. The cost o f installation is very
high.
3. Energy needs are not going to decrease. Energy sources are not going to increase.
(Use nor and question word order in the second clause, deleting the vvord noí.)
4. Buming fossil íuel causes serious damage to our planet. We need to develop other
sources o f energy.
5. Ecologists knovv that burning íossil fuels causes holes in the ozone layer. Peopỉe
continue to do it.
6. Poorer nations especially wịlỉ continue this harmful practice. They don't have the
money to develop "clean” energy sources.
7. All nations o f the world must take action. Our children and grandchildren wiỉl
suffer the consequences.
c. On a separale sheet o f paper, write sevcn compound sentences o f your ovvn, using each
coordinator once.
2, Compouĩui Seníences with Conjuncíìve Adverhs
A compound sentence can also be íornied as follows:
I independent clau se ; co n ju n ctive adverb, + independent cỉau se
Notice the punctuation: a semicolon íoỉlovvs the firsí independent clause, and a
comma follows the conjunctive adverb. Also, just like the FAN BOYS coordinators,
conjunctive adverbs express relationships betvveen the clauses. The following chart
shovvs the coordinators and conjunctive adverbs that express similar meanings.
confirmed: proved that they vvere correct
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- Part lfl Sentence Structure
C o m p o u n d S e n te n c e : w ith C O IIju n c iìv e A d v e rb s
C0NJUNCT1VE
COORDINATORS SENTENCE
ADVERBS
besides Community colleges offer preparalion
íurthermore for many occupations; moreover, they
and
moreover prepare students to transfer to a four-
also year coilege or university.
hovvever Many community colỉeges do not have
but
nevertheless dormitories; hovvever; they provide
yet
nonetheless housing referral services.
Students must take fmal exams; other-
or otherwise wise, they vvill receive a grade o f
incompỉete.
accordingly
consequently Native and nonnative English speakers
have different needs; thereíore, most
so hence
schools provide separate English
therefore classes for each group.
thưs
PRACTICE 4
A. Add another independent clause to each independent clause that follows to íorm
compound sentences. Be sure to add a complete clause containing a subject and a verb.
Circle the conjunctive adverb and add punctuation. Notice that some o f these sentences
are from Practice 3A on pages 174-175.
Example
The college campus is ỉocated in the center o f the city; |therefore,| it is verv easv to do
mv shopping___________________________________________________________________
1. Students can attend day classes m oreover_____________________________________
2. Students can live in dormitories othervvise
3. I have fínished my maữ homevvork hovvever
4 .1 have studied English for six years nevertheỉess
5. The instructor gave us eight vveeks to vvrite our term papers nonetheless
6. M y roommate scored very high on the English placement test consequentỉy
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B. On a separate sheet o f paper, combine the pairs o f sentences in items 2, 4, 5, and 7 írom
Practice 3B on page 175, using conjunctive adverbs Instead o f Coordinators. Punctuate
your new sentences correctỉy.
Exampĩe
Nuclear acGÌdents can happen. Nưcỉear power piants should have strict saíety
Controls.
Nucỉear ơccicients can happerì: thereiòre, nucỉear power plants should have strict
saieív controỉs
c. On a separate sheet o f paper, write four compound sentences, using each o f these
conjunctive adverbs once: /uríherm ore, however, iherefore, and oíhenvise.
i. Compound Senteuces with Semicoỉons
A compound sentence can also be formed with a semicolon alone;
Independent clause; independent ciause
My older brother studies law; my younger brother studies medicine.
Poland was the first Eastern European country to turn away from
communism; others soon followed.
This kind o f compound sentence is possỉbỉe onỉy vvhen the two ỉndependent cỉauses
are closely reỉated in meaning. Ị f they aren't closely related, they shouỉd be vNTÌtten as
tvvo simple sentences, each ending vvitlì a period.
PRACTICE5
Compound SetUences Wỉíh Semicoỉons
A. Place a semicolon betvveen the two independent clauses in the íolỉovving compouncl
sentences.
1. The American way o f ỉife apparentỉy does not foster’ marital happiness hair o f
aỉl American marriages end in divorce.
2. Motherhood causes some vvomen to qiiit their jobs others continue vvorking
despite having young children to care for.
3. Three hundred guests attended his vvedding two attended his íuneral.
B. Write three compound sentences o f yoiir ovvn, using a semicolon to jo in the
independent clauses.
PRAGXrCE
Comhiniỉĩg Simpie Seníences
Use what you have learned about forming compoưnd sentences to improve the
followỉng mini-essay, vvhicli contains many short, simple sentences. Combine sentences
vvherever possibỉe. Try to use each o f the three methods at least once. There is not just
one correct vvay to combine the sentences: there are many possible vvays.
ĩoster: encourage
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- Part III Sentence Structure
Robots
robot is a mechanical device that can períorm boring, dangerous, and dlfficult
tasks. ^First of all, robots can pertorm repetitive tasks vvithout becoming tired or bored.
^ h e y are used in automobile íactories to weld‘ and paint. “^Robots can also íunction in
hostile environments. ^ h e y are useíul for exploring the ocean bottom as welí as deep
outer space. ®Finally, robots can pertorm tasks requiring pinpoint accuracy. ^!n the
operating room, robotic equipment can assist the surgeon. ®For instance, a robot can kiỉl
a braln tumor. ®lt can operate on a fetus“ with great precislon.
^°The íield of artiíicial intelligence Is giving robots a limited abiỉity to think and to
make decisions. ^^However, robots cannot think conceptually. '^Robots cannot íunction
independently. ^^Humans have to program them. ^^They are useless. (Use otherwise to
combine sentences 13 and 14.) ^^heretore, humans should not worry that robots wi!l
take over the world-at least not yet.
Wríting Technìque Questỉons
1. What is the main idea o f each paragraph? What sentences State the main ideas?
2. What method o f organization is used to develop the first paragraph?
Complex Sentences
A complex sentence contains one independent clause and one (or more) dependent
cỉause(s). In a complex sentence, one idea is generally more important than the other One.
The more important idea is placed in the independent clause, and the less important idea
is placed in the dependent clause.
There are three kinds o f dependent clauses: adverb, adjective, and noun. The
follow ing chart presents an overvievv o f them. You vviỉl study all o f these kinds o f clauses
in greater detaiỉ in Chapters 11,12 and 13.
DEPENDENT CLAƯSES
ADVERBSCLAUSES
A dependent adverb clause begins Nvith an adverbiaỉ subordinator such as when,
while, because, although if, so that. etc.
1. Although women in the United States could own property, they could not vote until
1920.
2. In the United States, women could not vote untiỉ 1920 although they could own property.
Notice that there are two possible positions for an adverb clause: beíore or after
the inđependent cỉause. I f it comes beíore the independent clause, it is foỉỉowed
by a comma (sentence 1). I f it comes after the independent clause, no comma is
used (sentence 2)
' weld: join metaỉ by applying heat
" fetus: unbom baby
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- Chapter 10 Types of Sentences
A D JE C T lV E C LA yS E S
A dependent adjective (relative) clause begins vvith a relative pronoun such as
who, whom, which, whose, or that, or with a relative adverb such as where or
when. An adjective clause functions as an adjective; that is, it modifies a noun or
pronoun. The position and punctuation o f dependent adjective clauses is
discussed in Chapter 13
3. Men who are not married are called bachelors.
4. Last year we vacationed on the Red Sea, which íeatures excellent scuba diving.
A dependent noun clause íunctions as a noun and begins vvith a w/7-question
word, that, whether, or sometimes if. A dependent noun clause can be either a
subject (sentence 5) or an object (sentence 6). No commas are necessary.
5. That there Is a hole in the ozone laỵer of the earth's atmosphere is well known.
6. Scientists believe that excess chloroíluorocarbons in the atmosphere are responsible
for creating it.
PRACTICE 7
A. STEP 1 Underline the independent clause o f each sentence with a solid line.
STEP 2 Underline the dependent clause vvith a broken line.
STEP 3 Write SUB above the subordinator. Refer to the chart on page 172 for a
lisí o f subordinators.
Example
SUB
Because the cost o f educations is rising, manv students mưst vvork part-time,
1. When students from other coưntries come to the United States, they often suffer from
culture shock.
2. Because the cost o f education has risen, many students are having financial problems.
3. Please tell me vvhere (he studenl Uíìion is.
4. Engineers, vvho have an aptitude for drafting and mechanics, must also be artistic and
imaginative.
5. While the contractor follows the blueprint, the engineer checks the construction in
progress.
6. Since the blueprint presents the details o f the engineer’s plans, it must be interpreted
accurately by the contractor.
7.Students shouỉd declare a major by their ịunior year unỉess they have not made up their
minđs.
8. Even though students decỉare a major now, they can change it later.
9. Last year, the government reported that drug use is increasing.
10. Doctors are concemed about drug use by young people, who think that smoking
marijuana is risk-free.
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- Part III Senteiice Structure
B. STEP 1 Add a logical independent cỉause to each o f the following dependent cỉauses.
STEP 2 Punctuate each sentence correctly.
Ì . __________________ untiỉ i pay niy tuition.
2 . _______________________________________ unless ỉ take tvvelve units.
3 . ________________________________________ that Computer engineering is a popuỉar maịor.
4 . ________________________________ vvho is chair o f the Communications Department.
5. Because 1 had to look for a part-time jo b __________________
6 . ___________________________________ i f I want to get to school on time.
7 . _________________________________________ \vhether I should take advanced
calculus.
8 . ___________________________________ whom I met at the social club meeting last
month.
9 . ______________________________________ vvhen I left my country.
10. _____________________________________ that my college adviser recommends.
Compound-Compỉex Sentences
A compound-complex sentence is a combination o f tvvo or more independent clauses
and one (or more) dependent clauses. Many combinations are possible, and their
punctuation requires careful attention.
1 .1 wanted to travel after I graduated from college; hovvever, I had to go to work immediately.
2. Atter I graduated from college. I wanted to travel. but I had to go to work immediateỉy.
3. ỉ wanteđ to travel after I graduated from college, but I had to go to work Immediately because ị
had to support my family.
4. I couldn't decide where I should work or what I should do. so I did nothing.
• Punctuate the compound part o f a compound-complex sentence like a compound
sentence; that is, use a semicolon/comma combination (sentence 1), or put a
comma before a coordinator joining tvvo clauses (sentences 2, 3, and 4).
• Punctuate the compỉex part like a complex sentence. With adverb clauses, put a
comma after a dependent adverb clause (sentence 2) but not before them (sentence
3). With noun cỉauses, use no commas (sentence 4).
PRACTICE 8
Compound-Compỉex Sentences
Punctuate these compound-complex sentences.
STEP 1 Underline the independent cỉauses vvith a solid line and the dependent clauses
vvith a broken line.
STEP 2 Add commas and/ or semicoỉons as necessary.
1. I f housework and chiỉdcare are included vvomen vvork more hours per vveek than men
every place in the vvorid except North America and Australia but they also earn less than
men everyvvhere.
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- Chapter 10 Types of Sentences
2. In Africa, NVomen vvork harder than men because they work 67 hours per vveek but
men vvork only 53.
Although Latin American vvomen vvork 60 hours Latin men work only 54 and in
Asia vvomen work 62 hoiirs to men's 48.
4. Men in Western Europe work the least they put in only 43 hours per week
although women average 48.
5. The report started that even vvhen men’s vvorking hours vvere reduced they used the
extra time for leisure activities rather than for housevvork or childcare.
Contpound Sentences (Coordination) versus Compíex
Sentences (Subordination)
Good vvriting requires a mixture o f all four kinds o f sentences: simple, compound,
complex, and compound-complex. A composition vvith only short, simple sentences is
boring and inefĩective, as is vvriting that uses too many compound sentences. W rỉting
vvith complex sentences and participial phrases’, structures that use subordination, is
General ly considered more mature, interesting, and effective in styíe.
Compare the tvvo models that follow. The ĩirst model is an exampỉe o f
overcoordination, or vvriting with too many compound sentences. In the second modeỉ,
some o f the coordinalỉon has been replaced by subordination-compỉex sentences in
sentences 5, 6, 7, 9,11 and 12 and participial phrases in sentences 5 and 10. Notice,
hovvever, that coordination has been preserved vvhere the ideas expressed are equal
(sentences 1,4 and 8).
IVIODEL
Overcoordhtation
The People's Princess
^Diana, Phncess of Wales, was born in Noríolk, England, in 1961, and she died
in Paris, Prance. in 1997. ^People around the world were fascinated by the
transíormation of this shy kindergarten teacher into an independent, selí-assured
young woman. ^Her sudden death in a car crash vvhile being chased by
photographers prompted worỉdwide discussion and grieí.
^Diana Spencer was born to a wealthy. upper-class Engllsh íamily, and she
was educated in private schools ín England and Switzerland. ^She ỉoved chlldren,
so she became a klndergarten teacher. ®She led a quiet ỉife in London, but then
she met Charles, Prince of VVales, and her life changed dramaticalỉy. ^She and
Charles marrled in 1981, and her ỉife as the wife of the íuture king of England
began. ®She gave birth to two sons and became active in charity work. ®Diana's life
shouid have been a happy one, but it was not to be. ^°She and Charles began
having mahtal problems, and they separated in 1992, and they agreed to divorce in
1996.
^Dlana worked very hard at her job as princess, and she supported many
causes, especially those related to children and AIDS victims. ’^She lived for only a
short time, but she touched people all over the vvorld because of her beauty, her
compassion for others, and her style.___________________________________________
Panicipial phrases are presented in Chapter 14
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- Part 111 Sentence Structure
mm
Subordinatỉon
The People's Princess
^Diana, Princess of Wales, was born in Nortoỉk, Engiand In 1961 and died in
Paris, Prance in 1997. ^People around the world were íascinated by the
transíormation of this shy kindergarten teacher Into an independent, self-assured
young woman. ^Her sudden death in a car crash while being chased by
photographers prompted worldwide discussion and grieí.
^Diana Spencer was born to a wealthy, upper-class English íamily and
educated in private schools In England and Switzerland. ^Because she loved
children, she became a kindergarten teacher, leading a quiet lie in London.
®However, when she met Charles. Prince of Wales, her life changed dramaticaỉly.
^After she and Charles marrled in 1981, her life as the wife of the íuture king of
England began. ®She gave birth to two sons and became active in charity work.
®Although Diana's life should have been a happy one, it was not to be. ’°She and
Charles began having mahtal problems, separating in 1992 and to divorce in 1996.
^^Diana, who vvorked very hard at her job as princess, supported many causes,
especialiy those related to children and AIDS vlctims. ’^Even though she ỉived for a
short time, she touched people all over the world because of*her beauty, her
compassion for others and her style.
PRACTICE9
Subordination
Change the foỉlowing compound sentences to complex sentences by subordimating
one o f the clauses. Use the subordinator given. Note: Be sure to add the subordinaitor to
the correct clause so that the resulting sentence is ỉogical.
Example
It vvas raining, so I took an umbrelỉa to work. (because)
Not logical: It vvas raining because I took an umbrella to vvork.
Logical: 1 took an umbrella to vvork because it was raíning.
1. In the fom ier Soviet Union, men and vvomen had access to equal education anid job
opportunities, for that reílected the Soviet philosophy. (since)
2. The 19^7 Soviet constitution declared that vvomen and men had equal rightíS and
responsibilities, and vvomen joined the workforces. (after)
3. Also, millions o f Russian men vvere avvay in the m ilitary during W orld War .II, so
Russian vvomen filled their places at vvork. (because)
4. Soviet, vvomen vvorked fulỉ time at their jobs, but they also had the priimary
responsibility for taking care o f the family. (although)
5. They fmished their work, and they hađ to shop, cook the evening meal, and perrhaps
vvash, iron, or mend the family's cỉothes. (as soon as).
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- ChapterlO Types of Sentences
PRACTICE 10
C o m h ỉỉtin g S e n te n ce s in D ìffe r e n t
Use what you have leamed about the four kinds o f sentences to improve these
paragraphs, vvhich contains too many short, simple sentences. Use different methods o f
combining the seniences. You may want to refer to the chart on page 172 for a list o f
coordinators and subordinators.
Nonverbaỉ Communication
^Nonverbal communication, or body language, is used everyvvhere in the
world. ^It is a very powerful means of communication. communicates much
more than spoken vvords. ^One example of nonverbal communication is what
occurs betvveen parents and child. ^parents smile at their child. ^hey
communicate love, acceptance, and reassurance. ^The child feels comíortable and
safe. ®The smiie signifies approval. ^ h e child is happy and well-adjusted.
^°Another exampỉe of such communication is the ỉmage a person projects in
public. woman is vvalking alone on an unfamiliar and possibly dangerous
Street, ^^she vvants to appear conĩident. ^^She should walk briskly. ^^She may be
tired. ^^She should walk with her shoulders straight and her head heid high. '®Her
eyes shouỉd be íocused straight ahead. ^^Someone is looking at her.
’®She should return the gỉance vvíthout hesitation. contrast. a nervous
woman wilỉ appear aíraid. ^°She waỉks slovvly with her shoulders drooping and her
eyes looking downward. ^^Indeed, body ianguage can express more than spoken
language. is a very strong method of communication. ‘23f
^'^People use their body
signaỉs carelessly. ^^They can sometimes be misinterpreted.
Review
These are the important points in this chapter so far:
1. Clauses are the main building blocks o f sentences. There are two kinds o f clauses:
independent and dependent.
1 ......... ............ ................. .. . ■
An independent clausc
• expresses a complete thought. English grammar is easy.
• can be a sentence by itse!f.
A dependent cỉause
• becins vvith a subordinator. Adverb: ... because grammar is easy...
• cannot be a sentence by itself. Adjective: .... vvhich is in Spanish...
• is one o f three types: adverb, adjective, Noun: ... that grammar is easy...
or roun.
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- Part 111 Sentence Structure
2. There are four kinds o f sentences in English: simple, compoiind, complex, and
compound-complex. Each kind is punctuated differently.
A simple sentence has one r- ,
M J T Englislì Qrammar is easy.
independent clause. o J
A compoiind sentence has two
independent clauses joined by
a coordinator. Grammar is easy. so 1 leamed it quickỉy.
a conjunctive adverb. Grammar is easy, cherefore, I learned it quickly.
a semicolon. Grammar is easy; I learned it quickly.
A complex sentence has one With an adverb clause:
independent and one (or more) Because grammar is easy. Ilearnedit quickỉy.
dependent clauses. The , , . . .^ ,I ,
purctuation depends on the kind ' srammar quickly because it is easy,
o f dependent ciause(s). With an adjective clause;
One o f my favorite film s is Like Waỉer for
Chocolate, vvhich is in Spanish.
With a noun clause:
She doesn’t agree that grammar is easy.
A compound-complex sentence Because grammar is easy, I learned it quickly, biit
has tvvo indepenđent clauses and it took me several years to master' vvriting.
one (or more) dependent clauses.
3. Allhough good vvriters use all four kinds o f sentences, the use o f subordination
(complex and compound-complex sentences) is considered a more mature,
interesting, and effective \vriting síyle.
Paralleỉism
Parallelism is an important element in English \vriting, especially vvhen yoii are Ịisting
and comparing and contrasting items or ideas. Parallelism means thai each item in a
list or comparison ĩollovvs the same grammatical pattern. Ị f you are vvriting a list and
the first item in your list is a noun, vvrite all o f the follow ing items as nouns also. I f
the ĩirst item is an iníìnitive verb phrase, make all o f the others infinitive verb phraS"
es; i f it is a dependent clause, make all o f the others dependenl clauses. Ị f you are
making a comparison or contrast, make sLire that the items you are comparing or
contrasting are the same.
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- Chapter 10 Types of Scntences
Notice hovv the rule o f parallelism is folỉowed iĩỉ the second sentence in each o f the
ĩollovving sets.
N oí p a ra lỉel M y English conversation class is made up o f Chinese, Spaniards,
and some are from Bosnia.
P aralleỉ M y Engỉish conversation class is made up o f Chinese, Spaniards,
and Bosnians.
No( paraỊỊeỉ The students vvho do vvell attend class. ihey do their homevvork, and
practice speaking in English.
Parallcỉ The students vvho do vvell attend class, đo th e ir h om ew o rk, and
practice speaking in Engỉish.
Noi p a ra ỉle l The teacher wanted to knovv vvhich country vve came from and OLir
future goals.
P aralỉeỉ The teacher vvanted to knovv vvhich country vve came from and vvhat
our tuture goaỉs vvere.
N o ị paraỉỊeỉ The language skills o f the students in the evening classes are the
same as the day classes.
P ũrallel The language skills o f the students in the evening classes are the
same as the ỉanguage skills o f the students in the day classes.
You may also siibstitute a pronoun for the second "the language skills":
The language skills o f the students in the evening classes are the same as those o f
the students in the day ciasses.
Aỉl o f the \vords in the Tirst item do not aỉvvays have to be repeated in the second. You
may rcpeat all or some o f the vvords, depending Iipon vvhat you vvish to emphasize.
Before you vvTÌte a paper or (before) (you) take a test, you must organize your
thoughts.
’‘Before” and/or ” you" may be deleted from the second item vvithout breaking the rule
o f paralleỉism.
L^eĩore you vvrite a paper or take a test, you must organize your thoughts.
C oordhuitors __ And, Or, But
Words, phrases, and clauses that are joined by and, oì\ and bxịt are vvritten in paralỉeỉ
íbrm. Notice the parallel striictures joined by coordinators in the íoỉlovving senleiices:
The Pederal A ir Pollution Control Administration reguiates automobile exhausts,
and the Pederal Aviation Administration makes similar regulations for aircraft.
The states regulate the noise created by motor vehicles but not by commercial
aircraft.
Pesticides cannot be sold i f they have an adverse* effect on humans, on anỉmal life,
or on the environment.
adverse: uníavorable
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- Part III Scntence Structure
Correlative Conjunctions
Use paralỉel íorms vvith the coưeỉative conjunctions both ... and, eỉíher ... or; neithcr
... nor, and not o n ỉy ... hut also.
Correlative conjunctions are placed directly before the elements they jo in in the
sentence. Notice the parallel structure in these clauses joined by coưelative conjunctions:
A new law provides the means for both reguỉating pesticides and ordering their removaí if they
are dangerous.
Air pollutants may come either from the ocean as naturai contamlnants given off by sea ỉife or
from the internal combustion engines of automobiles.
If neither industry nor the Public works toward reducing polỉutlon problems, íuture generations
wili suffer;
Many people are neither concerned about pollutants nor vvorrieđ about their íuture impact.
At the present time, air pollution is controlled through laws passed not only to reduce the
pollutants at their sources but also to set up acceptable standards of air quality.
PRACTICE 11
Paraỉietism
A. Tvvo or more items in each o f the follow ing sentences are Nvritten in paralỉel
grammatical form. Underline the items or iđeas that are parallel, and circỉe the
vvord or vvords that connect the paraliel structures.
Example
An ideal envỉronment for studying includes good ỉighting, a spacÌQus desk, Ịànd
comfortable chair:
1. You know you are truly biỉingual when you can calculate in your second language
and vvhen you begin to đream in it.
2. People often spend as much time Nvorrying about the future as p lan n in g for it.
3. You can learn a second in the classroom, at home, or in a country vvhere the
language is spoken.
4. My new personal Com puter is both fast and reliable.
5. My old typevvriter is neither íasl nor reliable.
6. Ann is growing older but unfortunately not vviser.
7. Young people buy computers not only to do schoolvvork but also to play games.
8. I f industrial nations continue to bum fossil fueỉs and i f developing nations continue
to bum their rain forests, the ỉevel o f CO2 in the atmosphere vvill continue to
increase.
9. Beíore the judge announced the sentence,’ he asked the murderer i f he vvanted to
speak either to the victinVs íamiỉy or to the jury.
10. The criminal neither admiíted guiỉt nor asked for forgiveness beíore he was
executed.
* sentence: punishment
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- Chapter 10 Types of Sentences
B. Revvrite the follow ing sentcnces in parallel form. Underline the part o f the sentence
that is not parallel and correct it.
Example
The disadvantages o f using a credit card are overspendirm and vou pay
high interest rates.
The disadvantages o f using a credit card are overspendinạ and paying
hiạh interest rates.
1. Credit cards are accepted by department stores, airlines, and they can
be used ỉn some gas stations.
2. You do not need to risk carrying cash or to risk to pass up‘ a sale.
3. With credit cards, you can either pay your bill vvith one check, or
you can slretch out your payments.
COMPUTER TIP 4. You can charge both at restaurants and vvhen you síay at Hotels.
Computer programs
that check your style
are avaílabie 5. Many peopỉe cairy not only credit cards but they also carry cash.
Hovvever. these
programs alen you
only to certain stylistic 6. Many peopỉe vvant neither to payoff their balance monthly nor do
problems They are not
able to detect problems they like paying interest.
in grammar
7. Not making any payment or to send in only mỉnimum payments
every month is poor money management.
c. Write seven original sentences in parallel form, using the coordinating
conjunctions and, or: and h iit and the correlative conjunctions boíh ... and, eiĩher
... or, n e iíh e r... nor, and not o n lv ... but aỉso one time each.
Sentence Prohlems
In this section, you vvill ỉearn to recognize and correct some common errors In
sentence structure: sentence íragments as vvell as choppy, run-on, and stringy sentences.
Sciìteiìce FragmeiUs
Sentence íragments are incomplete sentences or parts o f sentences. Remember that a
comolete sentence must contain at ỉeast one main or independent clause.
' pass ap: miss an opportunity
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- Part ĨII Sentence Structure
Study the foIlowing four examples o f sentence fragments and the sugíĩested methods
for correcting them.
1. Because some students work part4ime vvhiỉe taking a fuỉỉ load o f courses.
Probỉem: This is a dependent clause.
To correct: Attach it to an independent claiise.
Because some síĩidents work part-time W'hiỉe taking a fu ll loaci (>f courses, ỉhev
have very> liltle free ỉinie.
2. For exampie, the increase in the eost o f renting an apartment.
Probỉem: There is no verb.
To correct: Rewrite the sentence so that it has a verb.
For e.xample, the cost oJ reníing on aparímení increased.
3. Peeiino lonely and íailing most o f his classes.
Problem: This is a partidpial phrase.
To correct: (a) Add a subject and change the participỉes tG verbs, or
(b) attach the phrase to an independent cỉause.
(a) He feỉt Ịonelv and wơs /a ị/in g most o f lĩìs cíasses.
(b) FeeỊịfiiỉ ỉoneỉv and /ơ iỉin g most o f lĩis classes, the studenỊ wise/y cieciíỉed to
make an appointmení \viíh ìùs counseỉor.
4. Many young people who ỉeave home at an early age.
Problem: This is a noiin phrase + a relative clause. The independent clause is
uníinished.
To correct: (a) Change the relative clause into an independent claiise, or
(b) compỉete the unfmished independent clause.
(a) Manv voung peopỉe leave homc ưt an early age.
(b) Xíanv voỉtníỊ people \vho lecive liome at an earỉv age do not nuínaị^e llìc ir
monev weìl.
Alvvays check your own vvriting for sentence Tragments. Pay particLiỉar attention to
your sentences beíiinning with subordinating conjunctions (aỉíhoĩỉgh, since, hecause, if,
he/ore, etc.). These are DANGER WORDS! Make sure tỉiat every subordinate clause
beginning vvith tliese vvords is attached to an independent clause.
PRACTICE 12
Rewrìíutỵ Sentence Fragmeiìts
A. Read the íollovving sentences. Mark them FRAG i f they are sentence tVagments, or
COMP i f they are complete sentences. On a separate piece o f paper, revvrite cach
fragment to make a complete sentence.
____ 1. The desirc o ra ll hiimankincỉ lo IIve in peacc and íVcedom, for cxarnplc.
____ 2. Sccond, Ihc lầcl ihal men are pliysically strongcr than womcn.
____ 3. rhe bcsl movie that I savv lasl ycar.
____ 4. Titanic vvas the most financially successfuỉ movie ever madc.
____ 5. Por cxamplc, niany sludcnls have part-timc ịobs.
____ 6. Aỉlhouíìh pcoplc \vant lo bcỉicvc that all mcn arc created equai.
____ 7. ỉ'inciing a suilablc marriage partncr is a challcnging task.
____ 8. Many o f my rricnds who didn’t havc ihc opportunily to go to collcgc.
____ 9. Working during ihe moming and altending classcs during thc aíìcrnoon.
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