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- GENERAL PHYSICS II
Electromagnetism
&
Thermal Physics
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- Chapter VIII
Dielectrics
§1. Induced charges and polarization of dielectrics
§2. Molecular model of induced charges
§3. Piezoelectric effect
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- We have known how can describe the electric field in vacuum.
How is the electric field in a matter environment?
In this chapter we consider the case that the environment is a
nonconducting material
Recall that in a conducting body (conductor) the charges move freely in
respond to an electric field, but in nonconducting bodies the charges can
not move freely.
Nonconducting bodies are called dielectrics or insulators.
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- §1. Induced charge and polarization of dielectrics:
1.1 Effects with dielectrics in an electric field:
One might at first believe that there should be no effect with dielectrics in
respond to an electric field. But Faraday discovered that this was not so!
A simple experiment is shown in the picture:
- Two conducting plates with magnitude of charge Q.
- The electrometer that measures
the potential difference V between two
conducting plates +Q -Q
Experiment shows that the potential
difference V between plates decreases
when we insert an uncharged sheet of
dielectric (glass, paraffin, polystyrene,…).
Note that the electrometer measures only
potential difference, there is no current
through it. It means that the charge Q is
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- 1.1 Induced charges and polarization:
Why the potential difference between two conducting plates decreases?
In an dielectric there are not free charges, electrons are not free to flow
from one atom (or molecule) to another. The electric asymmetry of atoms
(molecules) leads to the existence of electric dipoles. These dipoles are
randomly aligned, therefore the net electric field inside the electric is zero
(pic. a).
When the dielectric is placed between charged plates of magnitude Q,
surface charge density σ , the electric field E 0 between plates exrets
0
torques on the dipoles. These torques tend to align the dipoles with the
field (pic. b).
By this effect there exits a net charge density σ induced in the surfaces of
i
the dielectric (pic. c).
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a) b) c)
- 2.3 The dielectric constant:
The induced charges on the surfaces of the dielectric creates an
induced electric field E i . The direction of E i is opposite to the electric field
E0. Therefore, the net electric field inside the dielectric is
We define the dielectric constant - +
+ -
E0
1
- In summary, when a dielectric is inserted in a electric field, a
redistribution of positive and negative charges takes place, and as a
result, the induced charges arise on the surface of dielectric.
This phenomenon is called the polarization of dielectric.
The electric field E inside the dielectric, and the potential difference V
decrease by a factor k (dielectric constant).
Note: The field and potential difference decrease only when the charge
on the plates is held constant !
+ Values of k for some dielectrics: mica → 3-6; glass → 5-10; water → 80.
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- 1.4 Permitivity of dielectric:
The electric field between two plates is calculated through surface
charge density σ on the plates:
Without the dielectric:
With the dielectric: Suppose that the electric completely fills the
space between the plates, the net surface charge density is
σ- σ , and we have
i
From the formular we can write
Therefore where
The definition of permitivity
The meaning of permitivity ε
: of dielectric
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- In other word, the effect of dielectrics can be take into account by the
replacement ε → ε expressions for the elctric field.
0 in
ε can be called the permitivity of vacuum .
0
The units:
k is a number which has no unit.
2
The units of ε the same as of ε → C / Nm = F/m
is 2
0
(recall ε = 8.85 Х10-12 F/m)
0
1.5 Dielectric breakdown:
When any dielectric material is subjected to a sufficiently strong electric
field, the phenomenon of dielectric breakdown takes place and the
dielectric becomes a conductor.
Interpretation: when the electric field is enough strong, electrons are ripped
off from their molecules and crash into other molecules, liberating even
more electrons. This process often starts quite suddenly and creates a
short circuit between the conducting plates.
The maximum electric field magnitude that a material can withstand without
the occurrence of breakdown is called its dielectric strength. (For example,
for dry air it’s about 3 x106 V / m.
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- §2. Molecular model of induced charge:
We have known that the phenomenon of
polarization is caused by the rearrangement of
dipoles inside electrics. We go inside to the
molecular structure of dielectrics and consider in a/
more detail about these molecular dipoles.
2.1 The case of nonpolar molecules:
+ The simplest case of a monatomic gas (for
instance, helium) → the centers of gravity of the
negative and positive charges coincide (pic. a).
+ The molecular of some gases, like oxygen, has b/
a symmetric pair of atoms (pic. c).
+ The moleculars of this type, in the absent of
external electric field, have not permanent dipole
moment. They are called nonpolar moleculars.
In a electric field the centers of positive and
negative charges are displaced. As a result, the
nonpolar molecules will become asymmetrical c/
and have a electric dipole moment (pic. b).
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- + The polarization of nonpolar molecules takes place as if there exists an
elastic forces between positive and negative charges
Nonpolar molecules behave in an external field as elastic dipoles.
2.2 The case of polar molecules:
The example of this type is the water molecules. Since the centers of
grvity of positive and negative charges do not coincide → even in the
absent of external field, the molecules have a permanent electric dipole.
The effect of an external field is mainly to try rotate molecular dipoles
and direct them along the direction of the external electric field.
Polar molecules behave in an external field as rigid dipoles.
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- (a) In the absent of an external electric field,
the individual dipoles of polar molecules
are oriented at random → the average
moment in a small volume is zero.
(b) When there is an external electric field
→ there is some average aligment of the
molecules
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- §3. Piezoelectric effect:
3.1 Straight piezoelectric effect:
The piezoelectric effect is related to some crystal solid dielectrics.
From a quartz crystal we cut a plate whose surface is perpendicular to the
axis a of the crystal. The second axis is c.
+ When the plate is compressed in the direction along the axis a, in the
surface of the plate the surface charges arise.
This effect is called longitudinal piezoelectric.
+ The same charges arise as before, if the plate
is stretched along the direction OO which is
perpendicular to both axes a and c.
This effect is called transvers piezoelectric.
+ The sign of the surface charges will change,
as if we change the sign of the deformations
(that is, stretching along a and compressing
along OO).
+ To use this effect we put on the plate metal panels and connect them in
a close circuit. It is the principle of piezoelectric microphones: the pressure
from a sound wave creates a alternative currents in the circuit.
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- The interpretation of the piezoelectric effect: In some crystalls, a
deformation can lead to a displacement of sublattices. This displacement
breaks the electrical symmetry inside the crystall and creates a electric
dipole moment.
3.2 Reverse piezoelectric effect:
The described before effect is called straight piezoelectric effect. This
name means that there is also the reverse piezoelectric effect.
If we insert on the panels an alternating voltage, the crystall plate will be
stretched and compressed in accordance with
a
the frequency of the voltage → oscillations arise
in the plate.
There is also resonance phenomenon: O
when the frequency of the alternating
O
~
voltage coincides with the own frequency V
of the plate → the oscillations become
very strong.
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- The reverse piezoelectric effect and resonance phenomenon are applied
to stimulate ultrasonic waves, to stabilize frequencies of generators of
radio signals,…
The dielectric materials which have piezoelectric property are:
Some natural minerals: quartz, turmatin, …
Synthesized materials: piezoceramics, piezopolymers,…
(they are the most of the materials which have practical application).
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