Occupational A Practical Guide for Managers_2

60 Occupational health uncomfortable environment where disease is common. Management style, communication structures, objective-setting and appraisal systems may be perceived as unfair or at best quixotic. A significant factor may be a cultural refusal to recognise that stress can be a problem, so there is fear of discrimination if it is admitted. Job overload One of the commonest causes of stress at work is overload: too much to do in too little time (quantitive overload) or work which is qualitatively beyond the individual’s capacity (qualitative overload). Where there is quantitive overload the problem will be compounded if the employee has little or no control over the load. Machine-paced work has long been recognised as a source of pressure. This applies not only to process workers but also to those working with display screen equipment who are dependent on the timescale which the electronics can achieve. In many organisations the workload of one department is wholly dependent on other departments with little opportunity to control the flow. It is common for an employee to perceive that he is overloaded but be unable to find any solution, or at least any solution not perceived as making him vulnerable to management censure. Underload, although less common, may cause great anxiety where there are to be job losses or where the individual loses self-esteem because he is not making a worthwhile contribution. Interpersonal relationships If there is no relationship of mutual trust and respect between the manager and the member of his team, the subordinate is likely to feel under pressure. The manager may feel equally under pressure when there is a mismatch between formal and actual power, or when a more democratic approach to decisions has been adopted. Unsatisfactory peer group relationships may cause much distress. Scapegoating is not unusual in work groups. This may be difficult for the manager to control and is usually not amenable to outside intervention. Job ambiguity and role conflict A common problem for an employee is the lack of a clear job specification. The expectations of the employee may be entirely different from those of the manager or, indeed, the peer group. Often individuals are responsible to more than one manager and may be servicing several work groups. Priorities may be difficult to determine and clarification, when sought, may not be forthcoming. Mental health and illness at work 61 Lack of communication It seems almost impossible to achieve good communications in any but the smallest organisations. This may be a minor irritant where the unavailable information will in any case have little impact on the employee. However, in times of change when jobs may seem to be at risk, lack of information and consequent rumour only increase anxiety. Consultation is also important. Communication should be possible upwards, downwards and sideways. There is little point in consultation, however, if there is no discernible impact on management decisions. Home/work conflict Extended working hours, unsocial hours and shiftwork all tend to disturb family and social life. It is difficult to say what is a correct balance, although the eight-hour working day does seem to have many credentials. ‘Work, rest and play keep the doctor away’, ‘all work and no play make Jack a dull boy’: useful sayings with much real wisdom. Some sort of balance needs to be struck between the compartmentalisation of different aspects of one’s life and sharing the workaday world with one’s partner. Few organisations approach this problem realistically. The involvement of partners is usually perfunctory. Change Cultural anthropologists have found that all human societies evolve in a cultural pattern—a tightly woven system of habits, status, beliefs, traditions and practices. The cultural pattern is a vital stabiliser. Change is often introduced without any consideration of the threat that it may pose to the cultural pattern—which habits; whose status; what beliefs? In such cases resistance is the result. Change is of such significance that it almost deserves a separate chapter. The continuing change processes which are occurring in all industries have stretched employees’ adaptive and coping behaviours. It is difficult to think of an industry which is not undergoing massive change. Much of this is government-led in fields such as health care, education and transport. The aspirations of many organisations to achieve world class and competitive needs are also prime motivators of change. Perhaps a more significant force for change is information technology. Those over 40 can soon feel illiterate. It is difficult to imagine a greater change than that which has occurred in the typing pool. The clattering, noisy, bright environment is now quiet, enclosed, gently illuminated. Human communication is cut to a minimum; in fact, in many cases it hardly needs to occur in the day-to-day work routine. The 62 Occupational health routine and often inappropriate use of e-mail may reflect the isolation felt by some employees. In other areas well-developed technical skills are no longer required because sophisticated technology has taken over. Those who were able to accomplish complex tasks requiring manual dexterity and problem-solving strengths may derive little satisfaction from overseeing an electronic system programmed to perform the same task. At the very least, the locus of control has shifted away from the individual. Holmes and Rahe (1967) have demonstrated clearly (in a scale of some 40 items) that too many changes happening together, giving a total score of 300 or more, may be associated with the development of significant diseases such as cancer and coronary heart disease. An extract from the scale illustrates the relative importance of work-related change: Life event Value Death of spouse 100 Fired at work 47 Retirement 45 Business readjustment 39 Change to a different type of work 36 Change in responsibilities at work 29 Trouble with boss 24 To most people change is associated with insecurity either because of a reduction in the number of posts, or because the requirements of the job are subtly changed and the individual may feel deskilled or unskilled and vulnerable. People prefer stability and resist change. Managing the change process successfully is an essential management skill. Developing a policy for promotion and maintenance of mental health A full policy may not be necessary in every organisation. Human resource managers need to consider each aspect and decide what is appropriate for their organisation. If the organisational culture and the nature of the work are potentially stressful, or if there is ongoing change in the organisation, training in stress management should be given the same priority as any other form of employee benefit, such as pay for sickness absence. An example of a policy for mental health is shown at the end of this chapter (see pages 72–4). Mental health and illness at work 63 Recognising work which is inherently stressful It is obviously important to recognise that certain types of work are inherently stressful: for example, work which involves dealing with the public at times of stress and trauma, work which involves significant periods away from home, work which takes place in a hazardous environment, work with recurrent deadlines, work where the individual’s performance is before the general public, work which involves the ill and dying, and work where the individual may be exposed to physical or mental abuse. It is probably inevitable that individuals who work in such jobs are expected to be able to cope because of some form of self-selection. Expressions of anxiety are seen as signs of failure both by the manager and the individual. Increasing awareness of conditions such as post-traumatic stress syndrome and burnout has made it possible to introduce counselling and other support structures in these areas and, more important, has made it possible for the individual to admit to symptoms. What is offered to employees should be tailored to the organisation’s exact needs. It will include opportunities for employees to obtain counselling confidentially and without reference to management. The possibility of resettlement needs to be offered, or at least temporary transfer to less pressurised work without serious career implications. Recognising organisational cultures and structures which may be unhealthy An organisation may be described as power, role, support or achievement based. Within these structures the style of management may be equally variable. Although Taylorism has long since been discredited, stick and carrot management can still be found. On the other hand, many organisations are moving towards participative management bringing with it different pressures, particularly for those who are used to a more hierarchical approach. A significant part of the structure of an organisation is the communication network. Most managements are still seeking a successful communication structure. At times of change, weaknesses in the communication strategy will be easily identified. Such weaknesses can only lead to rumour and distrust. A caring organisation ensures communication between management and employees. It has in place good appraisal systems with agreed objectives and appropriate recognition and rewards. It allows opportunities for participation in decisions. It has well-trained managers 64 Occupational health who are fair and consistent in their decisions. Fairness is something that everyone wants but few experience. No amount of effort with employees in training and counselling will prevent mental ill health if their well-being is constantly undermined by an unhealthy management style. Detecting organisational problems Early signs of organisational stress are: • high staff turnover; • poor morale; • reduced productivity; • increased sickness absence; • customer complaints. Good sickness absence statistics will help to pinpoint problem areas (see Chapter 6). Questionnaires such as the Occupational Stress Indicator (OSI) may also give an early indication of departmental sickness. The OSI is a computer-based questionnaire which is completed by individual employees. It measures a number of parameters which can be used to counsel the individual but, by combining individual scores, can also be used to give an overall picture of a department. If the problem is not easily identified, an organisational psychologist may be required to undertake further analysis and help to resolve the problems. Sub-scales of the OSI are: Sources of stress Factors intrinsic to job Managerial role Relationships with other people Career and achievement Organisational structure and climate Home/work interface General behaviour Locus of control Coping mechanisms Social support Task strategies Logic Home/work relationships Time management Involvement ... - tailieumienphi.vn