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4 GIS and environmental management 4.1 INTRODUCTION Chapter 4 provides a structured discussion of the application of GIS in the wider area of environmental management,11 with the dual role of being a bibliographical review and a “taxonomy” of different types and areas of GIS application. It uses a similar general framework to Chapter 3, grouping GIS applications into four types of approach corresponding to different levels of sophistication: • GIS just for mapping; • GIS linked to external models; • using GIS’ own functionality; • multi-purpose GIS systems. As with IA, the literature on GIS applications to environmental management is characterised by the high proportion of cases reported in conferences and magazines, as opposed to research journals or books. This chapter draws particularly on the latter type of publication,12 and conference papers and magazine articles are only referred to when they provide particularly inter-esting cases. 4.2 GIS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MAPPING AND MANAGEMENT The framework starts at the lowest level of sophistication in GIS use within environmental management, looking at GIS applications where these systems seem to be used just for the production of maps for visual use by 11 Rodriguez-Bachiller (2000) includes an earlier version of this review. 12 A full review of conference papers and magazine articles would require too much space and, also, it can be said that there is a “natural selection” with the best of those items going further and getting converted into research articles. © 2004 Agustin Rodriguez-Bachiller with John Glasson 82 GIS and expert systems for IA decision-makers or researchers. Sometimes these systems may evolve into all-purpose management systems using GIS in more sophisticated ways, as was the case, for example with the fully integrated information system for New South Wales developed at the CSIRO research institute in Australia (Walker and Young, 1997). Taking this as a valid – albeit temporary – category, one of the typical uses of such mapping systems is to provide areawide informa-tion systems, to service a varied range of needs in a particular area: 1 Prominent in this class is what we can call general environmental inventories used for monitoring the environment, like the early Massa-chusetts environmental database (Taupier and Terner, 1991), or similar systems for North Estonia (Meiner etal., 1990), for Hungary (Scharek etal., 1995), for the ecological regions of the Netherlands (Klijn etal., 1995), for the Rif mountains in Morocco (Moore etal., 1998), for the National Wilderness Preservation System in the US (Lomis and Echohawk, 1999), for the Antarctic Treaty area (Cordonnery, 1999), or for the Papua New Guinea Resource Information System (Montagu, 2000). 2 Also typical is the monitoring of land cover in an area, often using satellite data, which can range from covering a whole country, like the Land Cover Map of Great Britain (Fuller and Groom, 1993a,b), or even a continent – like the CORINE Land Cover project for Europe (GIS Europe, 1992) – to a specific region, maybe to identify land use changes (Adeniyi etal., 1992, for North Western Nigeria; Ringrose etal., 1996, for North Central Botswana; Baldina etal., 1999, for the Lower Volga Delta in Russia). Haack (1996) combines GIS and satel-lite data for monitoring wetland changes in East Africa. Priya and Shibasaki (1997) use Landsat data simply to classify land uses in a region in India, Haak and Bechdol (1999) use radar satellites for the same purpose, Scott and Udouj (1999) use the GRASS GIS for spatial and temporal characterisation of land uses in a watershed in Arkansas, and Brown and Shrestha (2000) use GIS mapping to study market-driven land-use changes in the mountains of Nepal. 3 Some mapping systems can be integrated with general regional plan-ning to provide environmental information to be combined with other information, as in Botswana (Nkambwe, 1991), or in the Mediterranean area (Giavelli and Rossi, 1999) for the promotion of sustainable tourism. 4 Sometimes, just the production of certain maps is worth reporting, as in the project to map the whole world in 3D using new satellite technol-ogy (Chien, 2000); Thomas etal. (2000) discuss different mapping systems for Ghana and, on a different note, Rhind (2000) discusses the problems involved in global mapping. Considering more specific uses of GIS mapping for environmental management as such, the range of environmental aspects addressed is quite varied: © 2004 Agustin Rodriguez-Bachiller with John Glasson GIS and environmental management 83 • Ecology is typical, in that interest in GIS mapping arose in the 1980s and early 1990s linked to the perceived potential of using the Landsat satellite technology combined with GIS, and the issues raised by this new combination (Davis etal., 1991; Tappan etal., 1991), although a few years later the “novelty shock” appears to be wearing off, and articles of this type become less frequent in research publications. This is partly linked to the develop-ment of newer technologies like the Global Positioning System (GPS) (Havens etal., 1997; McWilliam, 1999), and the application of satellite data becomes almost routine, as for example Phinn etal. (1996), who used this type of data to map the biomass distribution in Southern New Mexico; Lammert and Allan (1999) use GIS to relate land-cover and habitat struc-ture to the ecology of fresh water, Geist and Dauble (1998) study in a similar way salmon habitats in large rivers, McMahon and Harned (1998) study the Albemarle-Pamlico drainage basin in North Carolina and Virginia (USA), and Sarch and Birkett (2000) apply it to detecting lake-level fluctua-tions to manage fishing and farming practices in Lake Chad. Cruickshank etal. (2000) use the CORINE database to estimate the carbon content of vegetation in Ireland, and Akcakaya (2000) integrates fieldwork and GIS to the management of multiple species and, on a different note, Bowker (2000) discusses the problems involved in using GIS to map ecological diversity. • Landscape mapping and monitoring is also typical: Higgs etal. (1994) develop a “demonstrator” system of common lands in England and Wales, Isachenko and Reznikov (1994) map the landscapes of the Ladoga region in Russia, and Taylor (1994) does it for the Niagara region in the US; Clayson (1996) monitors landscape change in the Lake District (UK) using remote sensing, Kirkman (1996) also combines GIS and remote sensing to monitor seagrass meadows, and Macfarlane (1998) applies a “landscape-ecology” perspective to the Lake District in the UK. • Environmental planning of heritage sites is reported by Wagner (1995) using GIS for a case study in Cambodia. • The monitoring and management of forestry – a particularly important component of the landscape – also shows a number of applications: Tortosa and Beach (1993) use “desk-top” portable GIS with GPS to map forest fire hot-spots and lightning strikes on the ground; Dusart etal. (1994) combine GIS with remote sensing in a river valley in Senegal, Thuresson etal. (1996) use GIS to visualise landscape changes in the Gulkal forest (Sweden), Jang etal. (1996) use a similar approach to assess global forest changes over time, and Johnson etal. (1999) use the same approach for mapping freshwater wetlands and forests in Australia; Bateman and Lovett (2000) use GIS to estimate the carbon content of forests in Wales. • Soil/agriculture management: Price (1993) reports on a project to help customers of the Department of Agriculture in the US, Girard etal. (1994) © 2004 Agustin Rodriguez-Bachiller with John Glasson 84 GIS and expert systems for IA use remote sensing to map fallow land, and Allanson and Moxey (1996) map agricultural land-use changes in England and Wales; Pratt etal. (1997) discuss the use of GIS to estimate the extension of areas under irrigation in North East Nigeria, where soil is at a premium – as it is in Japan (Kato, 1987) – or also for soil-protection organisations as in Baden-Wurthemberg, where Wolf (1996) reports on a project mapping hazardous sites. On a related note, Ackroyd (2000) reports on “precision farming” as a growing area of GIS use, and Knox etal. (2000) use GIS to map the financial benefits of sprinkler irrigation in the Anglian Region in the UK. • Related to geology, Knight etal. (1999) use GIS to map the sand and gravel resources in Northern Ireland. • Water quality monitoring: Beaulac etal. (1994) report on a project for the State of Michigan, Ford and Lahage (1996) report on Massachusetts, Cambruzzi etal. (1999) propose a system for the Venetian coastal ecosystem using GPS on boats; on other related aspects, Belknap and Naiman (1998) use GIS to map groundwater streams in Western Washington State, and Shivlani and Suman (2000) use GIS to study the distribution of diving operations in the Florida Keys. • Air, as inventories of air pollution (Trozzi and Vaccaro, 1993; Sifakis etal., 1999). 4.3 GIS LINKED TO EXTERNAL MODELS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT The next level of sophistication in GIS application, where these systems are linked with the use (or development) of analytical/simulation models, is one of the most popular uses of GIS. Its development was marked in the 1990s by a succession of conferences on the subject, starting with the IBM-sponsored meeting on computer-assisted environmental modelling in the summer of 1990 (Melli and Zanetti, 1992), followed by a series of conferences – every two years approximately – specifically on GIS and environmental modelling (Goodchild etal., 1993, 1996a,b). 4.3.1 Water modelling Fedra (1993) reviews a set of systems dealing with a wide range of environ-mental issues like Impact Assessment or site suitability, but the most popular area where GIS and simulation models are linked is probably that of water-related modelling: Van der Heijde (1992) provided an early “eye-opener” article about the potential of new computer technologies like GIS to help water modelling, Maidment (1993) and Moore etal. (1993) review comprehensively the linking of hydrologic models and GIS. Both Maidment © 2004 Agustin Rodriguez-Bachiller with John Glasson GIS and environmental management 85 (1996a,b) and Moore (1996) provide a second review of GIS and hydrologic modelling three years later, and Sui and Maggio (1999) provide another comprehensive review three years on. At a less ambitious level, Srinivasan etal. (1996) give a specific example of GIS and modelling in the Texas Gulf Basin, while Harris etal. (1993), D’Agnese etal. (1996) and Vieux etal. (1998) show the application to three-dimensional groundwater modelling. Freeman and Fox (1995) use IDRISI with models of watershed analysis for Hawaii, and DePinto etal. (1996) use a similar approach, showing a char-acteristic example of GIS in its typical dual role with respect to models: GIS is used first for pre-processing data to be fed into the models, and then for post-processing and displaying the results from the models. Murray and Rogers (1999) simulate groundwater vulnerability to “brownfield” devel-opment in the Rouge river watershed, and Aspinall and Pearson (2000) integrate landscape ecology, hydrologic modelling and GIS to assess conditions in water catchment areas. Water modelling is present also in various other areas of GIS use. For example, flood risk modelling has attracted considerable attention, for obvious practical reasons, from the early real-time flood warning system of Johnson etal. (1990), to Lanza and Conti (1994) forecasting flood hazards using remote sensing data. Burlando etal. (1994) illustrate the use of a GIS Digital Elevation Model (DEM) with a flood-risk model, using climatic, soil and land-use data for the Sausobbia river basin in Liguria (Italy), Brimicombe and Bartlett (1996) use a simulation model to assess flood risk in Hong Kong, and Thumerer etal. (2000) discuss a similar system related to climate change for the east coast of England. Related to this – insofar as flood risks are mainly associated to rainfall – is the major water-related theme of rainfall in its various aspects: • Hay etal. (1993, 1996) and Lakhatakia etal. (1996) integrate GIS with water and climate change models. • Gao etal. (1993) use a DEM with a “raster” GIS (GRASS) for Arizona to simulate runoff water, and Battaglin etal. (1996) use a precipitation-runoff model for a river in Colorado. • As another effect of rainfall, the simulation of soil erosion also attracts considerable attention, for instance, De Roo etal. (1994) link GIS to a simulation model to predict runoff soil erosion in the Limburg province of the Netherlands. These areas of water simulation are all related, and Wilson (1996) reviews critically the performance of six models covering the whole range of runoff, soil erosion and subsurface pollu-tion. Finally, for water pollution: Rogowski (1996) and Cronshey etal. (1996) report on the use of water pollution models with GIS, Sham etal. (1995, 1996) concentrate on modelling septic nitrogen levels in particular, and Xiang (1993) combines GIS with models to define potential impact-mitigation © 2004 Agustin Rodriguez-Bachiller with John Glasson ... - tailieumienphi.vn
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